Home	Wednesday Sessions	Thursday Sessions	Friday Sessions	PDF and Word Files	Participants List
	1.1 – 7.4	8.1 – 16.6	17.1 – 21.6

**If your abstract is missing, please send the abstract to Lorraine Allen, lallen@memphis.edu.

Session 17.1

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. ONLINE LEARNING (Display).............................................................. Avon

Wired for Research: An Online Graduate Research Course

Donald Snead and Barbara N. Young, Middle Tennessee State University

Content requirements, criteria and standards, and personal needs and issues of learners drive course design. Multiple modes of interaction such as small group discussion, large group discussion, teacher to individual student communication, and individual student to individual student communication must be incorporated into course design. Both traditional onsite course models and newer, more innovative, online course delivery systems must incorporate these components into course design.

Analysis and Application of Educational Research was designed with the above in mind as an innovative online course. The online graduate course was designed and structured for effective delivery, using the WebCT online development program and its components, with attention given to meaningful interaction, quality feedback, relevant and enriching activities, inquiry-based readings and activities, and research opportunities not typically available or engaged in when utilizing the traditional onsite course delivery format. The online course design provided for a more dynamic, complex, and enriched learning environment for the inquiry-seeking graduate student. Learners were immersed in course content within this alternative learning environment through multiple styles of delivery, Internet resources and Internet-based teleresearch, and numerous inquiry-based tasks.

As a result, a totally new, dynamic culture for learning emerged utilizing interactive WebCT components such as Online Personal and Group Discussion Boards; Group Chat Rooms; Student Tools including e-mail links, Student Personal Profile Homepages, online grade access, and Essay Drop Box with instructor feedback capability; External Links; Course Documents, including handouts, articles, and resources; and other links and tools. This poster display session noted Content description including Syllabus, Content Modules, Semester Calendar, Readings, Requirements, and description of links to various pages and tools, and essays and assignment directions. WebCT Course Map/Menu settings, navigation, and tools available and utilized within WebCT for this course were also addressed.

How Two Distance Learning Systems Augment Instructional Delivery

in a Graduate Program for School Leadership

Shelly Albritton and Jack Klotz, University of Central Arkansas

This display session highlighted the use of two distance learning systems to augment instructional delivery in a principal preparatory program. To guard against leaving a graduate student behind, a school leadership program has combined the best features of two online learning systems. According to Auyeung (2004), “Both campus-based learning and distance learning have been transformed by technology . . . ,” and effective use of online learning systems “can be used to promote dialogue between instructors and students, as well as enhance collaborative learning” (p. 120).

With WebCT capabilities, the program information and materials are organized and maintained, and asynchronous dialog, through the use of the WebCT e-mail and assignment tools, promotes ongoing interaction between the instructors and students. WebCT is also used to promote small student groups working collaboratively with on-going learning projects by employing the WebCT team tools, e-mail, discussion bulletin boards, and chat rooms. Ferguson (2001) asserts that effective teaching and learning is dependent upon meaningful, reciprocated communication. Centra, a distance learning system utilizing a voice-over-Internet protocol, is used for synchronous class sessions. This online system provides real-time, interactive sessions utilizing audio and video technology rather than relying on text-based chat rooms where some students are apt to become lost in a barrage of text on the computer screen.

The display highlighted the features of the distant learning systems used to deliver online instruction in the program. The display also provided a summary of student perceptions regarding utilization of the two systems in terms of their effectiveness for asynchronous and synchronous instructional delivery, as well as the impact on their learning experiences during class sessions and with collaborative learning experiences with their peers.

The Effects of Gender and GPA on Asynchronous Online Discussion

Christopher S. Tollison, Mississippi State University

The asynchronous Internet-based course has become a dominant force in the world of distance education, and with its emergence has come the increased use of the online discussion forum. Despite the growth in asynchronous online discussion, the existing literature suggests that it is not without its problems, namely, that female, as well as lower achievement students, do not participate in online discussion at the same rate or in the same manner as male and higher achievement students. The study investigated discussion transcripts from an undergraduate level information systems class over the course of a semester to find out: (1) possible gender and GPA-based differences in frequency and length of postings, (2) possible gender and GPA-based differences in communicative style as measured by the use of specific linguistic qualifiers and intensifiers, and (3) the combined effects of gender and GPA on discussion style and frequency.

Results suggested that while differences in the rate of postings were found between the higher and lower GPA students, no differences were found in their usage of any of linguistic qualifiers and intensifiers. Furthermore, there were no indications that gender and GPA interacted to affect online discussion at any level. However, the results showed that women did, in fact, use more linguistic qualifiers than men and that higher-GPA students post more frequently than lower-GPA students. The implications of the study are that in order to harness the full potential of the online discussion forum, steps need to be taken to ensure full and meaningful participation occurs among both male and female students, as well as high-achievement and low-achievement students.

Session 17.2

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. GENDER ISSUES......................................................................... Berkshire

Presider: Meiko Negishi, Mississippi State University

Self-Efficacy and Sexual Behavior: Gender Differences Among Adolescents

Sharon K. McDonough, Glennelle Halpin, Gerald Halpin, and Robin Taylor, Auburn University

Abstinence has been touted by its supporters as the only certain way to avoid the harmful effects of out-of-wedlock sexual activity, but how self-efficacious are young people with regard to this endeavor? Results from analyses of data collected in an evaluation of abstinence education programs, with particular focus on differences between boys and girls in terms of self-efficacy and sexual behavior, will help answer that question. Relevant literature dealing with adolescent self-efficacy and gender differences provides a framework for the study.

A total of 5,439 students in Grades 7 through 10 from 49 schools in five counties who participated in abstinence education programs were surveyed before and after the intervention. The 135-itemYouth Survey (Halpin & Halpin, 1998) was used as the pre/post measure. The survey was designed to measure students’ attitudes toward sexual abstinence, self-reported behavior and behavioral intentions regarding sexual activity, and various personal characteristics, including the construct of self-efficacy.

Survey data were analyzed through GLM multivariate statistics. Mean differences between males and females were statistically significant, with girls consistently scoring more positively than boys on the Self-Efficacy scale. An additional fairly consistent finding was a gender difference in self-reported sexual behavior. Generally, girls in the 7th through 9th grades reported being more abstinent than boys. For samples of 10th graders, however, there was not a statistically significant difference between the groups. Finally, analyses of data indicated statistically significant improvements on self-efficacy scores from pre- to posttest in some instances. As Henry Ford put it, “Whether you think you can or you can’t, you’re usually right.”

The findings presented in this paper underscored the importance of self-efficacy for adolescents in resisting pressures to engage in sexual activity. Other possible explanations for gender differences in adolescent sexual behavior were also discussed.

A Study of Single-Sex Classes in Coeducational Middle Schools

Kathleen T. Campbell and Rayma Harchar, Southeastern Louisiana University

This study was the first part of a longitudinal study of a program being implemented in a rural school district in the deep South. Two middle schools modified their schedules to achieve single sex classes for core courses while retaining coeducational classes in physical education and electives. The present study compared students’ attitudes toward language arts, math, science, general academics, and self esteem in two coeducational middle schools with single sex core academic classes and two traditional coeducational middle schools. The study also examined the perceptions of teachers toward the single sex programs at the beginning of the program and several months later.

For the past several decades, research has indicated that females begin to lose their voices in middle school and defer to males, especially in math, science, and technology. That gap is evident in the work force, where females are disproportionately underrepresented. In response to research reports alleging that schools were failing to meet the needs of females, many educators changed their instructional methodology, and some single sex programs emerged. New research has indicated that males are trailing females in achievement, and that 30% more females attend higher education than do males.

Because the single sex programs are just being implemented for the 2006-07 school year, the data were collected in August and again in mid-October and included student responses to a self-report, Likert-scale questionnaire, as well as the responses of teachers to a school climate questionnaire and several open-ended questions. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA for the students and repeated measures MANOVA for the teachers, followed with univariate repeated measures ANOVAs.

Because this is a longitudinal study, the research will continue for three years, comparing achievement test scores, attendance, and school report cards of the two different settings.

The Role of Gender as a Variable of Self-Selection and Success

in Online Coursework in Higher Education

Sherri Restauri, Gordon Nelson, and Frank King, Jacksonville State University

The substantial growth in student enrollment in online classes within higher education may indicate that a number of important variables are influencing student course selection and subsequent enrollment and retention. Along with this increase in student enrollment across online classes in higher education, the male gender has been noted within a tremendous amount of recent research as having a decline in enrollment within higher education overall, including specifically the online mode of learning.

This study investigated the variables that may potentially be influencing the decline of the male higher education student’s enrollment into online classes. The creation of a Likert-scale, closed-response survey addressed the issues of: (1) age, (2) time spent online, (3) preference for different course modalities, (4) procrastination, (5) self-assessed technological skill, (6) frustration level toward technology, (7) single versus group work preferences, (8) perceived need for help, and (9) learning style. To address gender as a potential factor in the responses to these nine variables, anonymous student responses were analyzed based on gender using ANOVA.

Participants in this study (n=136) came from 18 classes taught at a southeastern university during summer terms. The results of this study indicated that three of nine variables investigated indicated statistically significant differences between males and females. These three variables included average time spent online, preference for class format, and perceived need for help with online classes.

The results of this research indicated that there were gender-related academic success and course-selectivity variables that are currently shaping our online higher education market today. In addition to the three variables identified, learning style also presented important differences between males and females, as these learning styles relate to time spent on the Internet. The authors of this paper proposed that social, psychological, and educational factors are responsible for the gender differences noted in this study.

Session 17.3

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. ATTITUDES.................................................................................. Cornwall

Presider: Shery L. Shaw, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Comparing Pre-Teaching Service Students' Beliefs in Evidence-Based and Nonevidence-

Based Childhood Disorders to Their Spiritual and Religious Characteristics

Kelli R. Jordan, University of Tennessee

Technological advances in recent years have resulted in significant increases in our access to information via the Internet. Parents and teachers alike tend to use this information as a reliable source for interventions related to childhood disorders, such as autism, ADHD, and dyslexia. However, researchers have rarely investigated the correlates of strong beliefs in the efficacy of these interventions. Spirituality and religious convictions offer dimensions that often guide people's behaviors, cognitions, and beliefs. With this in mind, the researcher sought to determine the relationship between spirituality or religious convictions and beliefs in interventions (both evidence-based and nonevidence-based) for childhood disorders.

The researcher constructed two survey instruments, one designed to assess spirituality and religiosity and the other to assess beliefs about childhood interventions. The 23-item spirituality survey adapted questions from a published survey on college students’ beliefs and values that loaded on the factors of spirituality and religious commitment. The 20-item interventions survey gave brief descriptions of potential interventions for childhood disorders, and asked participants to rate their level of belief that the intervention will work. The two surveys, along with demographics questions, were combined and counterbalanced, resulting in two forms of the survey. The two forms were randomly assigned to class sections.

Seventy-one students, primarily enrolled in preservice teaching courses, participated in the researcher’s study. In the data analysis, they determined if high levels of spirituality and religiousness correlate with high levels of belief in interventions. In addition, they determined if evidence-based vs. nonevidence-based interventions and demographics affected this correlation. Presented were the results of the data analyses, both the frequencies and levels of beliefs in various interventions and the relationship between beliefs and spirituality/religious convictions. Finally, implications of the findings, relevant to encouraging critical thinking in future teachers, were discussed.

Are All Freshman Classes Created Equal?

Martha Tapia, Berry College

As Millennium Generation students enter the universities, it is of interest whether there has been a change in the attitudes toward mathematics of the students and if gender differences continue to exist. To investigate this, this study compared scores on the Attitudes Toward Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) of students from two different incoming freshman classes at a private liberal arts college in the Southeast. The two groups that were the focus of this study were the incoming freshmen in fall 2000 and the incoming freshmen in fall 2005.

The ATMI is a 40-item Likert scale inventory with four factors: self-confidence, value, enjoyment of mathematics, and motivation. It was developed to measure students’ attitudes toward mathematics. The ATMI was administered to students enrolled in eight different, randomly selected, mathematics courses in fall 2000 and in fall 2005 at the beginning of each semester. One hundred sixty-nine students were identified as incoming freshmen in the fall 2000, while 117 students were identified as incoming freshmen in fall 2005. This sample was predominantly Caucasian. Of the 169 fall 2000 participants, 74 were males and 95 were females. Of the 117 fall 2005 participants, 56 were males and 61 females. The students completed the inventory in their classes.

Data were analyzed using a multivariate factorial model with four factors of mathematics attitudes as dependent variables (self-confidence, value, motivation, and enjoyment of mathematics) and two independent variables, class and sex. Assumptions were verified. The interaction of class and sex and the main effect of class incoming year were not significant. The main effect of sex was found to be significant, with medium effect size, in all four factors. Male students scored significantly higher than female students in all four factors of attitudes toward mathematics.

A Literature Review of Educating Resistant Adult Learners

Elizabeth C. Smith, University of Southern Mississippi

This literature review evaluated the problem of resistant adult learners. One frustrating task for educators is trying to motivate and educate a student with a negative attitude, a resistant or noncompliant student. The researcher defined a resistant student as a student refusing or hesitant to participate in education by not completing assignments and/or having a negative attitude toward the material, class requirements, or the instructor. Quinones and Cornwell (2004) define a resistant student as a person who stops short of her or his very obtainable academic goals. The researcher centered on literature that specifically discussed adult learners who were resistant in various educational settings. The researcher listed the various reasons found to deter a student’s participation and motivation.

There were specific factors that repeated throughout the literature as contributing factors in adult learners’ resistance, such as not enough time, cultural differences, occupational aspirations, and development of the individual, family, and community (Sandlin, 2004; Mok & Tsz, 1999). Though the student is responsible for developing coping skills and learning to balance the various roles and duties in his life, the educator also has an important role in decreasing this resistance of the student that is advantageous in the educator aligning with the student and encouraging self-direction.

The implications to this review are important. The educator must realize that her/his perceptions and the perceptions of the student contribute to the resistant level; this fact empowers educators. As educators listen to the students, make necessary changes through negotiations, and have multifaceted methods of demonstration, collaboration, and discussion, the adult student’s resistance will diminish (Faucette, Nugent, & Sallis, 2002). This review should be followed by actual research that takes into consideration the student’s perception of the material or subject matter.

Session 17.4

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. ADMINISTRATION............................................................................ Devon

Presider: Sherri Restauri, Jacksonville State University

Evaluation of University-Sponsored Professional Development for PK-12 Teachers

Bonnie Daniel, University of Tennessee, Martin

A four-year, public, rural institution received six grants targeted specifically for collaborative efforts between higher education and local schools systems to provide professional development to K-12 teachers. While the activities offered incentives ranging from free tuition to lap-top computers, and from supplies to stipends, all project directors reported difficulty in filling the available positions. This study examined the characteristics of the professional development activities that teachers valued as they made their decisions regarding participation. With NCLB, millions of dollars have been allocated for collaborative projects between higher education and K-12. Research has demonstrated that effective professional development includes not only high quality content, but also pedagogy, follow-up, and a supportive environment. While research exists that describes effective professional development, teachers’ selection process among varying formats, incentives, and content has not been examined.

All of the teachers (n=96) who participated in one or more of the six professional development activities during summer 2005 were surveyed, and 50 (52%) responded. The researchers designed the survey with Likert-type statements, open-ended questions, and rankings. Due to the nominal data of the surveys, researchers ran chi-square tests for each of the six groups of respondents. Those six chi-squares were compared at a .01 significance level.

The results suggested that despite the availability of high-quality professional development, teachers chose among available options based on a variety of variables. The findings implied that colleges and universities would be advised to collaborate with K-12 teachers and administrators prior to designing professional development opportunities and to align expectations of the stakeholders to maximize participation. The findings demonstrated that high quality activities and other incentives must be coupled with other factors to attract teachers.

Critical Personal Narratives of Administrators and Professional Staff of Color

Carlton R. McHargh, University of Alabama

Within campuses across the United States, the need to increase the diversity of staff and students is well documented and uncontested. While some studies have demonstrated that increased diversity in higher educational contexts has been linked to many benefits, other studies have also shown that achieving diversity in college campuses across the United States, particularly predominantly white institutions (PWIs), is not an easy task to accomplish (Jackson, 2004; Johnson & Wiley 1998; Glazer-Raymo, 1999, cited in Sagaria, 2002).

This study made the argument that in order for such institutions of higher learning (IHEs) to truly embrace the multicultural ethos that underlies diversity, policies and practices have to assure that individuals from underrepresented backgrounds are meaningfully included at all levels of those institutions. This study drew from the qualitative component of a larger study that utilized a mixed-methods approach. Specifically, the qualitative aspects of the study employed in-depth interview procedures (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992) with a purposively selected sample of participants comprising upper-level administrators and professional staff in a flagship university located in the southern United States. An interview protocol utilizing open-ended, in-depth interview questions (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984) was used to cover a variety of topics, including how they interacted with the other top-level branches of university leadership, climate issues, and perceived prospects for advancement. Data were analyzed utilizing QSR N6 qualitative data analysis software.

Findings provided critical insight into how administrators and professional staff of color in a PWI see as being important the process of hiring persons of color into top level administrative positions in PWIs. This study offered some valuable insights into issues pertaining to the hiring of upper level administrators and strategies that a PWI has utilized to create diversity among its upper level leadership.

“Principals” Perceptions of Achieving Success in Overcoming Hurricane Katrina Challenge

Jean D. Krieger, Woodlake Elementary School, and John Brown, and Betty Porter,

School Leadership of Greater New Orleans

The purpose of this study was to discover the common threads of recovery necessary for school principals to recover from severe emergencies. Principals of parochial, private, and public schools in Louisiana that were impacted by Hurricane Katrina were questioned about how the hurricane changed their schools and about what supports they needed to recover and begin school again after the storm. Principals returning to their schools after the storm were interviewed, and their responses were recorded and studied to find commonalities.

Researchers met with the principals at their schools. The most common remarks from these principals focused on the “human capital” that made the difference during their recovery period. Principals also discussed the difficulties with communicating with staff and finding employees who were able to return to work as recovery began.

This study presented the information that was learned from interviews with principals before, during, and after the reopening of schools in south Louisiana. Also presented were suggestions for further study to help prepare schools for future crisis or emergencies. This qualitative study was designed to provoke thought and interest in developing plans to prevent or offset the chaos that accompanies crisis.

Session 17.5

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. LEADERSHIP................................................................................... Dorset

Presider: Lola Aagaard, Morehead State University

Reading Issues and Literacy Coaches: Perceptions in Principals of the Mississippi Delta

Corlis L. Snow, Delta State University

The study examined the perceptions of elementary principals in the Mississippi Delta regarding reading issues and the impact of literacy coaches on their roles as instructional leaders. The critical role of principals as instructional leaders has been impacted by recent accountability mandates that revived reading issues and caused changes in the instructional leadership structures of many schools through the mass employment of literacy coaches who were hired to lead instructional improvement in reading. Sixty-one practicing elementary principals in the Mississippi Delta participated in the study.

They completed the Elementary School Principals’ Questionnaire, which solicited their perceptions of reading issues, their understanding of those issues, and the resources they used to inform themselves of the issues. Thirty-four of the participants employed literacy coaches and completed the researcher-constructed addendum solicited their perceptions of the impact of literacy coaches on principals’ roles as instructional leaders. Personal interviews were conducted with five of the latter participants to further examine their perceptions of the impact of literacy coaches on their roles as instructional leaders. Questionnaire data were analyzed for percentages, frequencies, and means. Interview responses were added to enhance the quantitative data.

Results of the study indicated that the most critical and unresolved issues perceived by the participants included whether children’s entry into kindergarten should be delayed until passing a screening test. The most understood reading issue involved teaching phonics as a prerequisite to reading instruction. Personal contact with specialists in the field was indicated as the most used and most useful source of information about reading issues. Additionally, most of the participants perceived that the literacy coach enhanced their roles as instructional leaders by functioning in a limited, but supportive, instructional leadership role. The findings of the study suggested implications for teacher education and educational leadership preparation programs.

Reasons for Becoming a School Administrator

Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

School administrators in the United States are facing unprecedented stress related to increased accountability, reduction in funding, student discipline, and shortages of highly qualified teachers. Many administrators are opting to leave the profession, but educational administration preparation programs still have students enrolling. This study sought to understand why individuals enter the field.

The paper presented the findings of the second phase of a multiple-phase study of why graduate students enroll in educational leadership preparation programs. Phase I of the study included students from a single program, Phase II included students from all approved programs within a single state, and Phase III will include students from defined region that includes 25 states. This paper presented Phase II findings.

Program coordinators at each of the state’s approved educational administrator preparation programs were contacted and invited to participate in the study. At the end of the summer semester, questionnaires were mailed to participating departments and administered by a faculty member on-site to all students enrolled in educational administration programs. The questionnaire collected both quantitative and qualitative data and included demographic information; opportunity to rate, on a Likert-type scale, 10 possible reasons for becoming a school administrator; opportunity to rank top five reasons for becoming an administrator; and an opportunity to write a short paragraph explaining reason for choosing this career path. Descriptive statistics were reported for quantitative data. Qualitative responses were analyzed for themes.

Initial results indicated a stark difference in the responses of “White” and “Black” respondents in several areas including responses to these statements: “I have been encouraged to do so by others,” and “I felt I would do a great job.” The implications of this study can assist program coordinators with recruitment/retention of students in preservice administrator programs and assist districts with identifying potential administrator candidates.

Session 17.6

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. MULTICULTURAL.............................................................................. Essex

Presider: Velma L. Campbell, Morehead State University

Do Multicultural Courses Foster Multicultural Education?

Sirlata Bhattacharyya, Adelphi University

This study discussed the level of cognizance and perceptions regarding cultural diversity in the classrooms of preservice college students. It also investigated whether multicultural education, as taught in many college courses, is helping in the understanding and fostering of cultural diversity.

Despite the importance given to multicultural education, there is yet confusion in the perceptions of preservice college students regarding multiculturalism. Researchers (Banks & Banks, 1995; Sleeter & Grant, 1988) have time and again tried to stress the need to attend to learners belonging to diverse racial, cultural, and ethnic groups; yet it remains a fluid issue. For the marginalized sections of society, multicultural education needs to create spaces of representation (Asher, 2001) in which students in our classrooms belonging to diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural groups can represent their selves and negotiate their identities, and in the process remove the fogginess of ignorance.

The study addressed the true success of these courses in this regard by measuring the students’ perceptions of how successfully multicultural education was being addressed in their classrooms. It also questioned whether teachers with less experience in actual classroom teaching but who have been receiving increased training in multicultural education were more effective in implementing best practices versus the veteran teachers. A survey was conducted to investigate the perceptions of these preservice college students regarding multicultural education in an Educational Psychology program.

Results indicated that there was a fair amount of content integration, some amount of equity pedagogy in the form of providing resources for literacy in two languages, and staff development programs are fairly good. However, extreme results regarding institutional changes to foster multiculturalism were evident, as very little action was taken for prejudice reduction. Schools had a lot of rhetoric regarding the empowerment of school culture and social structure, but less action.

ESL Teachers’ Culture Competence and Students’ Performance

Li-Ching Hung and Carey S. Smith, Mississippi State University

In 2001, the U.S. Census Bureau Report wrote that more than 35 million immigrants living in the United States stated that their native language was not English. Each year, the populace increasingly becomes more ethnically and linguistically dissimilar, with the result that English as a Second Language (ESL) has become the fastest growing adult educational program in the US. In addition, the U.S. Department of Education (2002) said that, during the 2001-2002 program year, 43% of participants (approximately 1.2 million out of a total of 2.7 million) enrolled in state-administered adult education programs were taking ESL classes. In other words, almost half of those enrolled in adult education programs within the United States are English language learners.

The purpose of this study was to discuss to what extent ESL teachers’ culture competency influences students’ performance. Specifically, the majority of ESL adult teachers in America tend to be white, but have little training regarding multicultural issues. Research shows, however, that teachers more aware of their students’ cultures tend to better meet their students’ needs.

The authors conducted case studies to investigate this issue, interviewing six adult ESL learners in an ESL center on a college campus located in the southeastern United States. The students represented a rich diversity of cultural backgrounds with all possessing an intermediate level of English proficiency. The participants all reported that their teachers possessed little understanding of their culture, with five (out of six) students stating unequivocally that their instructors were indifferent to their cultural heritage. Students reporting that their teacher possessed understanding regarding the students’ culture indicated higher learner motivation. Other issues related to culture competency were also discussed.

Session 17.7

8:00 – 8:50 A.M. USING BLACKBOARD FOR STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS: THINKING

OUTSIDE THE BOX (Training Session)........................................ Yorkshire

Jeff Anderson, University of Alabama at Birmingham

The Blackboard Learning System has become one of the most widely used course delivery systems in higher education. Its basic design and ease of use have made it a popular choice for course delivery and class discussions. Some faculty members are hesitant to use Blackboard for assignment submission because of difficulty using the digital dropbox. Students are often confused about how to submit assignments, and faculty finds it difficult to navigate through the long lists of student assignments in the dropbox. There is no simple way to provide feedback to students within the dropbox. One alternative to the dropbox is the use of discussion forums for assignment submission.

This session looked at an approach to categorize and manage assignment submission through discussions. Anyone with an interest in assignment management in Blackboard was encouraged to attend. Attendees should bring a laptop with wireless access to participate in the hands-on portion of this training.

Session 17.8

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. 2006 OUTSTANDING PAPERS............................................................ Avon

Presider: William Spencer, Auburn University

Session 18.1

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. CAN DISPOSITIONS BE CHANGED? A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS

RESEARCH (Symposium)............................................................ Berkshire

Organizer: Lindon J. Ratliff, Delta State University

The study examined research in an attempt to discover whether dispositions held by educators and preservice teachers could be changed in order to meet the NCATE guidelines. With the 2000 publication of the NCATE, which stressed schools of education to evaluate the “knowledge, skills, and dispositions” of future educators, more and more colleges have refocused their preservice teacher programs to address dispositions. The attempt to meet this “disposition” component of the standard has led many universities to create instruments that they claim are measuring dispositions. With this new data being collected, many colleges have had to address the concern of what to do with a preservice educator who does not posses the dispositions of an effective teacher. Also, the question arises about whether a future educator who does not posses the dispositions of an effective teacher would be able to alter her or his dispositions in a short period of time to meet the criteria set by the NCATE standard.

This paper examined previous research in order to determine if a consensus has been made concerning the concept of altering dispositions. If they can be altered, then how should colleges deal with preservice teachers who do not posses the desired dispositions? Furthermore, if they can not be altered, how should colleges deal with preservice teachers who do not have the dispositions of effective teachers?

During the analysis of previous research, an examination of the scholarly merits of the research was conducted. Also, the paper attempted to present the findings in a chronological method. The findings of the study suggested that consensus on whether dispositions can be changed is not present. Limited research was found concerning the amount of time necessary to change a disposition. There also has arisen a problem concerning teacher education candidates “masking” their dispositions in order to meet the desired dispositions of effective teachers. One university has attempted to combat the problem of masking by having the prospective teachers write lengthy essays, and thus in their opinion ultimately revealing their true selves. The conclusions of this research suggested that a solid consensus is lacking about whether dispositions can be changed and, if so, how much time is needed.

Session 18.2

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. ACHIEVEMENT............................................................................. Cornwall

Presider: Linda Searby, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Impact of No Child Left Behind on the Passage Rate for Statewide Assessments in Mathematics:

A Comparative Look at Students with Disabilities

Jennifer Bell, Glennelle Halpin, and Gerald Halpin, Auburn University

In 2002, Congress passed the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. Although this law was not a special education law, it had a tremendous impact on the education of children with disabilities because it mandated that all children, including those with disabilities, had to reach levels of academic proficiency in specific subject areas by the 2013-2014 academic year. In addition, this law mandated that all children, including those with disabilities, be included in statewide assessments that would help determine whether a state met its adequate yearly progress goals (Georgia Department of Education, n.d.; NCLB, 2001). According to NCLB, only 1% of students with disabilities may be excluded from statewide assessments. Therefore, students with mild intellectual disabilities who formerly would have been excluded now must participate in statewide assessments.

Further, in reference to participation in mandatory statewide assessments, the law (IDEA, 2004) states that only students with significant cognitive impairments may be excluded from statewide testing, indicating that those with mild intellectual disabilities must take state-mandated tests. In Georgia secondary students with disabilities, therefore, must take the Georgia High School Graduation Tests (GHSGT) (Georgia Department of Education, 2004b).

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of NCLB (2001) on the passage rate of the math subtest of the GHSGT. Math scores for the 1999-2000 and 2004-2005 administrations of the GHSGT to students in a 12-county district in Georgia were the data source. Results for students with disabilities and students without disabilities were compared using a repeated measure analysis. While the passage rate for students without disabilities has increased, such was not the case for students with disabilities. One possible explanation is that many more students with disabilities took the test in 2004-2005 (almost 7,000) as compared to 1999-2000 (< 3,000). Implications of these findings were discussed.

Evaluation of Sixth Graders Staying in Elementary School

Brenda C. Litchfield and Joe’l Lewis, University of South Alabama

The Mobile County Public School System (MCPSS) kept current fifth graders at four elementary schools this year rather than send them to middle school. The reason for this approach was that rising sixth graders often lack social development and effective use of self-regulated learning strategies. Research supports that students of this age group (10-12) are confronted with a variety of problems encountered in transition from elementary to secondary school. Some stress-related events are differences in school structure, classroom organization, teaching strategies, academic standards, and teaching expectations. The differences in atmosphere between elementary and secondary schools can cause students to become less motivated and less interested in school, and to have feelings of incompetence.

Perceptions of sixth-grade students regarding their staying in elementary school as sixth graders or moving to middle school were obtained. Students who transitioned into middle school as sixth graders were surveyed about their perceptions of their future middle school experience. Data were compared for each group. The researchers evaluated differences in academic achievement between these two groups. Academic achievement was evaluated by Criterion Reference Test (CRT) scores, grade point average, and standardized test scores. Teachers and parents were also surveyed about to their perceptions regarding their students’ location for the sixth grade. All students were surveyed at the beginning of the year and will be surveyed at least four times during the 2006-2007 school year.

An effective evaluation of this approach is critical because it may become a county-wide program during the next school year. It is important to find out if this approach of keeping sixth graders in elementary school is effective. Findings were evaluated and reported to the MCPSS for use in the decision to continue or abandon this practice.

An Investigation of Formal Operational Thought in College Students,

Utilizing Logic and Probability

Kimberly E. Ball, Louise Mullins, and Linda Morse, Mississippi State University

The formal operations stage proposed by Jean Piaget (1896-1980) may possibly be the most influential on the field of education than any of his other stages. Piaget believed this final stage to be obtained in adolescence (Hyde, 1970). In much current research, it has been argued that formal operations stage is never attained in a significant percentage of the population (Kuhn, 1979).

A probability/logic study involving college students was performed. Of particular interest were whether the students had attained formal operations, and if the number of college math courses made a difference in their current level of formal operations. A six-item probability/logic educational questionnaire was developed. It contained the following demographic information: major, gender, age, year in college, and a listing of math and physics courses taken in college. After completion of the questionnaire, the subjects rated their confidence in their answers. A total of 159 college students from Mississippi State University participated. The start time was noted, as well as the time of completion.

Responses indicated that 42% of the sample population had not attained formal operations level, answering either zero or one correct question out of the possible six. Another 54% of the subjects were operating within the formal operations stage, but had not yet obtained mastery, answering between two and four questions correctly. Only seven subjects, 4% of the sample population, correctly answered five or six items, demonstrating complete mastery of the formal operational level.

Linear regression analysis indicated that the number of math or math-based physics classes taken in college was statistically significant in the attainment of formal operations. A long-term follow-up study needs to be performed to determine if the students not yet operating at formal operations level will ever attain that level, and, if so, at what age.

Session 18.3

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. LEARNING....................................................................................... Devon

Presider: Vincent R. McGrath, Mississippi State University

Multimedia and Learning: Too Much of a Good Thing?

Tim Wilcox, Mississippi State University

Since the first Apple computer entered a classroom, multimedia has been a part of computer-based learning. Educational software developers continue to market products that mirror current interactive technologies. Consequently, instructional software programs are often designed as full multimedia productions rivaling the latest Hollywood releases. Cognitive learning theory suggests that a barrage of sensory input may not support efficient learning.

This paper examined chronologically a collection of journal articles and dissertations that addressed multimedia usage in instructional software. Each focused on the use of static text, audio, and still or animated images in light of current cognitive learning theory to ascertain their effectiveness in instructional software. The research sought relationships between the use of multimedia and cognitive load and attention, as well as explored learner cognitive styles and learners’ control of the learning pace. The effects of split-attention and redundancy on cognitive load were discussed, and possible educational implications were given. Continued discussion regarding the use of multimedia in education may help decide how much is too much.

Wholetheme Educational Integration of Self-Regulation

Asghar Iran-Nejad, University of Alabama

There is a growing recognition in educational circles that the dynamic organization of the inherent context of learning and performance is fundamentally multiple source. Consequently, many obstacles to educational research and practice are seen as being traceable to the fragmentation that results from the single-source focus of educational efforts. Single-source fragmentation results when a single construct (e.g., active learning) becomes or determines the source, the processes, and the effects of educational exploration or practice. For decades, active learning, for instance, has been the self-regulatory source of research and practice in education representing the role of the learner as the agent of learning. Accordingly, person-regulated active learning is often contrasted with environment-regulated passive learning, which was the one and only source of research and practice for decades before active learning became popular.

The alternative to single-source research and practice has recently been described as a wholetheme focus in which the educational process is ecosystemic in character where multiple sources, processes, and effects coexist inseparably, function simultaneously, and pervade seamlessly. Accordingly, the concept of wholetheme was adopted in this study to explore the multiple-source nature of the global coherence context of the educational process. This study regarded understanding the dynamic multiple-source organization of education to be a timely priority toward an integrated, as opposed to fragmented, mainstream education. Relying on existing developments in wholetheme education, the paper explored the global coherence context of educational research and practice with a special emphasis on the multiple sources of self-regulation of learning processes.

An Exploratory Study of Philosophy and Teaching Style in Alabama's Workforce Education

and Entrepreneurship Instructors

Lisa M. Powell, Auburn University

Entrepreneurship and workforce education training have proven to be essential vehicles for economic growth within economically depressed areas. Both literature and best practices support learner-centered, hands-on, application-based teaching styles for effective training rather than teacher-centered styles. Workforce education and entrepreneurship instructors within Alabama were surveyed in order to identify their adult education philosophies and teaching styles and to determine whether differences and relationships exist.

The findings of this study suggested implications for instructor development within the workforce and entrepreneurship training facilities. Survey results indicated that instructors tended to agree with all five educational philosophies, despite internal inconsistencies, indicating that they had never considered their personal philosophies regarding adult education. Additionally, entrepreneurship and workforce instructors tended to be more teacher-centered despite literature and best practices supporting learner-centered teaching practices. However, instructors who indicated that they had received adult education degrees tended to report scores reflecting more learner-centered practices.

The study used Zinn’s Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory (PAEI) to describe attitudes (agreement/disagreement) toward the five established adult educational philosophies, and Conti’s Principles of Adult Learning Scale (PALS) to identify the primary classroom teaching style the instructors gravitate towards regardless of curriculum content.

Session 18.4

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. INSTRUCTION.................................................................................. Dorset

Presider: Dana G. Thames, University of Southern Mississippi

Cognitivism vs. Constructivism: Which Is More Appropriate for Instructional Design?

Laura E. Gray, University of South Alabama

This presentation described two learning theories that educators could use to develop effective instructional materials. While all learning theories have their strong points and sound theoretical bases, cognitivism and constructivism have been the two that have traditionally lent themselves to being linked most closely with instructional design.

There are many important key concepts to both cognitivism and constructivism. Cognitivism has been popular in instructional design since the 1970's, and constructivist concepts have dominated the field since the mid-1980's. However, cognitivism is ultimately the more appropriate theory for instructional design for three reasons. First, it places a strong emphasis on learner analysis. Second, it encompasses themes such as learner motivation and self-monitoring. Finally, cognitivism's instructional strategies are appropriate for learners of all levels.

Applying Behavioral Techniques to English Language Learners

Cary S. Smith and Li-Ching Hung, Mississippi State University

Behavioral techniques are commonly viewed as highly effective methods for teaching second languages. From the 1920s through the mid-1960s, the teaching of foreign languages and its concomitant work, the study of second-language acquisition, was primarily behavioral in its techniques. Key theorists, including Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner saw the learning of language as essentially centering upon a system of habits, including the theses that learning occurs when a response is made due to a stimulus, and that the initiation of reinforcement, either positive or negative, increases the likelihood of producing speech. If one receives adequate positive reinforcement for a certain response, it will become a habit.

Behavioral techniques, drawn from behavioral psychology, were once commonly considered as highly efficacious methods for teaching second languages; however, because of the ubiquitous Chomskian influence for the past several decades, this has changed to the detriment of behaviorism. Herewith followed a general discussion regarding established behavioral techniques used in second-language acquisition.

Traditional behaviorists explain 2L acquisition as a mixture of learner imitation, feedback for success or failure, and habit formation. By imitating the sounds and patterns in their environment, children learn the target language; likewise, receiving reinforcement and encouragement from parents is vital, thus enabling children to speak with others around them. It is essential for second-language learners to receive verbal and social praise, since it leads to a greater likelihood for success.

Second-language acquisition is enhanced when proven behavioral techniques like chaining and connectionism are used. For instance, rather than have a student rely on her/his teacher for correct answers, he/she is encouraged to search for the answer with no outside help. Other related behavioral techniques were discussed as well.

Four Perspective of Effective Teaching

Leslie Jones-Hamilton, Nicholls State University

Effective teaching is critical to school reform. With the passage of the No Child Left Behind legislation (NCLB), school administrators and teachers will be held to higher levels of accountability. The NCLB legislation mandates student testing in grades three through eight – schools must show growth based on the test scores. Regardless of differences in educational philosophies, different views on standardized testing, and differences in opinions and perceptions on accountability, the author believes that most educators will agree that the classroom is the focal point in meeting the challenges of accountability – effective teaching in the classrooms. The effective teaching and effective schools research suggest that effective teaching makes a difference in student achievement (Olivia, & Pawlas 2005). In this study, the competencies and characteristics of effective teaching were discussed from the perspective of Olivia & Pawlas (2001), Cashmere (1999), Langlois & Zales (1991), and Sanders (2000).

Session 18.5

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. HIGHER EDUCATION......................................................................... Essex

Presider: Charlotte Eady, Jacksonville State University

Validity Study of an Online Version of the Motivational Strategies

for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ)

Sandra M. Harris, Troy University, and Rebecca R. Jacobson, Troy University, Montgomery

Standard 6.2 of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (APA, 1994) indicates that when substantial changes are made to an instrument, the instrument must be revalidated to assess the psychometric properties of the changed conditions.

The purpose of this study was to validate an online version of the MSLQ, a self-report inventory that assesses a student's motivational orientation and learning strategies. The instrument contains 81 items that are distributed across scales. The MSLQ was normed on 386 students attending both a public four-year university and a community college in a midwestern university. Results from the normative study produced Cronbach alphas that ranged from .62 to .93 for the scale scores. Means for the scores for the normative sample ranged from 8.78 to 54.48, and the standard deviations ranged from 4.26 to 10.08.

Participants in the current sample consisted of 339 participants from a southeastern university. Results from a reliability analysis revealed coefficient alphas that ranged from .66 to .91 for the scale scores. The mean of the scale scores ranged from 8.53 to 40.15, and the standard deviations ranged from 4.50 to 8.99. Results from this study indicated that the online version of the MSLQ produced a pattern of scores and alpha indices that were similar to the results obtained in the validation study. The researcher concluded that the online version of the MSLQ produced consistent patterns of scores that were analogous to scores produced by the original paper version of the instrument. Use of the online version of the MSLQ offers a more efficient and cost effective method of administering, scoring, and interpreting data generated by the MSLQ.

Ain’t I a Woman: An Inquiry into the Collective and Experiential Dimensions of Teachers’ Practical

Knowledge Through the Experience of African American, Female Academics

Roland W. Mitchell, Louisiana State University, and Torhonda Lee, University of Alabama

This study documented and analyzed the nature and content of the knowledge that enables professors to foster learning for African American students. Its findings suggested that there is a complex grounding for this type of pedagogical competence, one that goes beyond mastery of subject matter knowledge and beyond simply sharing racial and/or gender identity with students. Specifically, it suggested that knowledge of the discourses about education within students' communities of origin, discourses often based on collective historical experience, is a valuable resource to professors in their efforts to promote equity for African American students. Integrating relevant historiographic theory with teacher practical knowledge theory, this study developed an epistemology of teachers' practical knowledge drawn from such historically informed discourses.

For concrete examples of this knowledge in practice one will look specifically at the experiences of African American women in the professoriate because they are in the double-bind of historically experiencing marginalization in society as a result of their racial identity, as well as their positionality as a result of their gender. Through their stories, the researcher attempted to first document this type of knowledge and then described its utility for teacher practice.

This paper locates itself in the newly emerging tradition of research known as the scholarship of teaching. Data were drawn from interviews, observations, case study development and follow-up interviews with 10 African American female professors who had shown a particular interest in serving African American students.

The resulting conception of teacher knowledge has specific implications for teacher education practice and policy concerning targeted hiring practices, professional development for all teachers, and the potential scope of data collection and analysis in such teacher knowledge research.

Employee Job Satisfaction in Intercollegiate Athletics: The Influences of Leadership Style

David LaVetter, Arkansas State University

Intercollegiate athletics administrators have perceived increased pressure to generate revenue, remain solvent, avoid negative media attention, and consistently maintain highly competitive teams in their athletics programs. These increased pressures may produce behaviors in athletic directors that may not have been seen in the past. Specific behaviors identified by department subordinates were recently studied to determine their affect on employee job satisfaction and morale. The perceived leadership behaviors of athletic administrators in intercollegiate sport and employee job satisfaction appeared to be a unique combination. This literature review identified the characteristics of sport leadership behaviors that may influence job satisfaction or dissatisfaction among subordinates (i.e. coaches and auxiliary administrative staff) within intercollegiate athletics.

Demographic data of intercollegiate athletics directors in the U.S. were discussed to better understand sport leadership in social contexts. Expected and observed leader behaviors of collegiate athletic directors were provided to determine the relationships between leadership style, organizational climate, and employee job satisfaction. Studies on the effects of athletic department leadership and employee job satisfaction are few; however, the studies described in this discussion suggested that certain leadership behaviors of college athletics directors have had a direct relationship to employee job satisfaction. Athletics directors at all levels of NCAA institutions were studied to determine differences in varying athletics department philosophies.

The implications of the paper helped discover which leadership behaviors in college athletics not only helped influence the perceived productivity and efficiency of the organization, but also yielded positive employee job satisfaction and morale responses of subordinates.

Grading and Attendance in Doctoral Programs

Chiwaraidzo J. Nyabando and James H. Lampley, East Tennessee State University

Issues revolving around grading and attendance are ever-present on college campuses. Graduate programs, including doctoral programs, are not immune from these issues. This study addressed doctoral students’ perceptions of and attitudes toward grading and attendance at a regional state university in Tennessee.

An online survey was used to gather data from approximately 200 doctoral students at the target university. The survey consisted of demographic, Likert-type, and open-ended questions. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods. It is not surprising that doctoral students tended to have very high expectations in regards to grades, and most viewed attendance as being one of the most important components of success.

The result of the analyses produced other valuable insights into doctoral students’ attitudes toward attendance and opinions and perceptions of grading at one university.

Session 18.6

9:00 – 9:50 A.M. WRITING GRANT PROPOSALS (Training Session)...................... Yorkshire

John R. Petry, University of Memphis

The session emphasized the following: (1) sources of grant and project funding (local, state, and federal); (2) initiating activities: statement of need, personnel concerns, contract issues, ethical issues, work/task analysis, costing, scheduling, and network analysis; (3) project management budgeting, meeting deadlines, resource changes, reviews and reports, and evaluation procedures; and (4) deliverables (product and reports).

Knowledge bases and skill requirements cited were: (1) teamwork, (2) critical thinking, (3) problem solving, (4) professional responsibility, (5) values, (6) time management, and (7) best professional practices. Emerging computer applications were discussed, including university electronic services for grant seekers. Websites were contacted for information.

Participants spent time in imagining an educational need, submitting a short proposal to a funding agency to create a project to meet a need and manage the project, noting deficiencies in design, discrepancies in meeting goals, and success in the achievement of objectives.

Session 19.1

10:00 – 10:50 A.M. STUDENT MOTIVATION..................................................................... Avon

Presider: Jeff Anderson, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Academic Domain-Specific Hope Measures: Validation of Math and English Hope Scales

Sage E. Rose and Cecil Robinson, University of Alabama

This study presented the initial validation of the Math Hope Scale (MHS) and English Hope Scale (EHS), which were based on Snyder’s hope theory and designed to assess students’ levels of academic hope in math and English courses. Within education, hope research has translated into predictive measures of student academic achievement across all grade levels.

The Dispositional Hope Scale (DHS) predicts elementary students’ achievement test scores (Snyder et al., 1997), and junior high and high school students’ grade point averages (GPAs) (Snyder, et al., 1991). Though the DHS is highly predictive of general achievement outcomes, it may not be sufficient in identifying motivation in specific areas of academic domains. The Academic Hope Scale (AHS; Snyder & Shorey, 2004) was later created to investigate hope in educational contexts; however, the authors proposed that this measure was still too general to capture levels of motivation in specific academic domains. The MHS and EHS were created to investigate academic specificity in hope theory. Students (N = 226) from introductory Lifespan Development and Educational Psychology courses at a large, public research university in the southeastern U.S. participated in this study by filling out the DHS, AHS, EHS, and MHS.

Participants were predominantly white females with a mean age of 20.5 years. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the MHS and EHS provided distinctly separate factor loadings than the Dispositional Hope Scale and the Academic Hope Scale. Further results showed that academic hope and math hope were the best predictors of final course grades and high school GPA. Results of this study suggested that hope is contextually bound, and that measures need to reflect this context-specificity. These results provide a starting point for hope to begin addressing the academic domain specificity that is necessary in addressing student motivation in academic achievement.

Session 19.3

10:00 – 10:50 A.M. CULTURE..................................................................................... Cornwall

Presider: Sharon K. McDonough, Auburn University

Preparing Today’s Preservice Providers: An Examination of Cultural Competence

Among Teacher and Speech Pathologist Candidates

Calandra D. Lockhart and Shirley E. Thompson, Valdosta State University

The study examined the cultural competency of preservice providers (preservice teachers and preservice speech pathologists) to teach or work with racially and ethnically diverse students or clients. Some of the questions examined included: (1) Is the perceived cultural competence of preservice providers influenced by working with culturally diverse student or client populations through field experiences? (2) Is the perceived cultural competence of preservice providers influenced by course work? (3) Is the perceived cultural competence of pre-service providers influenced by their feelings of preparedness concerning students or clients from racially and ethnically diverse populations? and (4) Is the perceived cultural competence of preservice providers influenced by their choice of major?

In this investigation, preservice providers were surveyed. One hundred sixteen preservice providers enrolled in field experience, 147 preservice teachers enrolled in a Special Education course, and 44 preservice providers enrolled in a Communication Disorders course. Participation in this study was a requirement of the preservice provider’s field experience and course work.

The preservice providers were given an anonymous online survey. The preservice providers were given a web-link via e-mail providing them with access to the survey by their field experience supervisor or professors. The students, faculty members, and field experience supervisors were not provided with access to data collected from the surveys. All data collected from this survey were saved on the online server and backed up by the principal investigator on CD and flash drive.

The pre- and post-survey data collected from this survey were analyzed using analyses of variance, and matrices of emerging themes were developed.

A Cross-Cultural Study of Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs and Inquiry-Based

Teaching Practices in High School Physics

Meiko Negishi and Anastasia D. Elder, Mississippi State University

Over the past 10 years in the United States, the primary goal of science education has been reforming teaching practices to enhance student learning and motivation. The National Science Education Standards (1996) are promoting inquiry as the central strategy for teaching science. Moreover, in many countries, scientific inquiry is emphasized in the curriculum. Researchers indicated that teaching practices are shaped by teachers’ epistemological beliefs (Bryan & Abell, 1999; Cronin-Jones, 1991; Hashweh, 1996). However, much of the study has been conducted in elementary or middle school.

This cross-cultural study examined how high school physics teachers think about student learning and knowledge in science, and how inquiry-based instruction is emphasized in physics lessons in the United States and Japan. Teachers’ epistemological beliefs were measured using a 24-item survey with a five-point Likert scale. Teachers’ inquiry-based teaching practices were assessed by a 10-item questionnaire with a five-point Likert scale (maximum 50 points). Eleven U.S. and 11 Japanese teachers’ epistemological beliefs and inquiry-based teaching practices were compared using ANOVA. Also, using a multiple regression analysis, teachers’ use of inquiry-based instruction was predicted by their epistemological beliefs.

The results found that the U.S. teachers (M = 41.18) used inquiry-based teaching practices more frequently than Japanese teachers did (M = 30.18), p = .000. However, none of the epistemological beliefs were statistically significantly different, p >.05. A multiple regression analysis on instruction of the U.S. teachers revealed that their epistemological beliefs accounted for 17.2% of the variance in their use of inquiry approach to teaching for the U.S. teachers and 23.0% for Japanese teachers.

The current study indicated that teachers in both countries emphasized scientific inquiry in their teaching practices. Contrary to the previous studies in elementary and middle school, high school physics teachers’ epistemological beliefs had a weak relationship to their teaching practices. Possible constraints were discussed.

Magnet Programs and Desegregation: A Case Study of a Foreign Language Immersion Program

Heather K. Olson Beal, Louisiana State University

Like many cities around the country, Baton Rouge, Louisiana has made magnet programs the centerpiece of their school desegregation efforts. Some academic scholars (Eaton & Crutcher, 1996; Metz, 1986), however, question the efficacy of magnet programs in desegregating school systems. This paper explored the ways in which one magnet program, the foreign language immersion program at South Boulevard Elementary School, has been used for desegregation and school reform efforts in Louisiana public schools. This qualitative case study explored, from a historical lens, how this immersion magnet program’s success (or lack of success) in desegregating has been measured.

The author anticipated several cycles of data collection for this study, only the first of which is included in this paper. Data for the initial phase of this case study were derived from the exploration of court records, East Baton Rouge Parish School Board minutes and publications, newspaper accounts, and other contemporary studies of the effects of desegregation in order to better understand the socio-historical context of desegregation in Baton Rouge. Subsequent cycles of data collection, therefore, centered on data collected from ethnographically-informed interviews and fieldwork.

South Boulevard is unique for several reasons. First, it is dissimilar from other schools where previous immersion research has focused because of its high minority population and its high percentage of students eligible for the free and/or reduced lunch program. Second, although Louisiana has the highest number of immersion programs in the nation, there is little published research regarding them. Finally, while other schools in Baton Rouge and across the country are resegregating, South Boulevard is actually becoming more integrated. This case study of South Boulevard’s foreign language immersion program provided lessons regarding school desegregation and the pursuit of equal education in its broadest sense.

Session 19.4

10:00 – 10:50 A.M. POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION....................................................... Devon

Presider: Kathleen Campbell, Southeastern Louisiana University

Bodies of Knowledge: Faculty Members with Disabilities in Higher Education

Robert C. Anderson, University of Alabama

With all of the people in higher education, one wonders why more of them are not people with disabilities. Faculty with disabilities are particularly under-represented in the academy (only 3.6%). This session examined the perspectives of faculty members with disabilities as a means to further interrogate this phenomenon.

Concerning people with disabilities in higher education: despite being the largest multicultural minority in the world, “one would never know this to be the case by looking at the literature on minorities and discrimination” (L. Davis, The Disability Studies Reader, 1997, p. 1). How do faculty members with disabilities believe they are faring in relation to their colleagues? Most faculty members are likely to experience disability at some point in their careers, if only through the aging process. How does the participation of people with disabilities transform the shared learning experiences for all participants in academe?

The study showed that postsecondary institutions are still under-prepared for disability issues, in spite of disability legislation and policy. Higher Education primarily addresses disability from a policy perspective, rather than as a social justice issue. What implications for educational research does this approach have for higher education? Disability is not just another specialty with concerns loosely related to other minorities. The experience of disability is relevant to all minorities, for all groups have people with disabilities in them.

A Comparison of Educational Aspirations and Graduation Rates

in Four Rural Tennessee Counties

Kristy M. Leonard and Andrea D. Clements, East Tennessee State University

This study of 2,115 students in grades 6 - 8 compared reported educational aspirations to actual high school and college graduation rates for four rural counties in East Tennessee. Historically, graduation rates in rural counties have fallen below the state average. Past research has indicated that intervention programs that target at-risk students have increased high school graduation and college entrance rates. During the 2005-2006 school year, an NIAAA-funded study was conducted investigating at-risk behaviors of rural middle school students in northeast Tennessee. As a part of the study, a survey was conducted. One question asked how far the participants would like to “get with their education.” Choices ranged from little interest in graduating from high school to graduation from graduate or professional school.

The purpose of the current study was to compare the educational aspirations of those students to actual high school graduation, college attendance, and college graduation rates from the same counties. Information obtained from the single question on the survey was compared to actual education statistics from the studied counties. It was found that each county’s actual educational attainment was considerably lower than aspirations expressed by surveyed middle-schoolers. The average percentage of surveyed students planning to graduate from college or above was 83.73% (range 74%-86%), yet only an average of 10.9% of the population in those counties holds a college or graduate degree. Data for individual counties were reported.

The primary conclusion from this study was that educational aspirations expressed in middle school overestimate actual educational attainment. One important implication was that educational attainment may be increased by capitalizing on an aspect of adolescent idealism that relates to education. While students are “dreaming big,” perhaps planning could be done that will give them concrete steps leading to the attainment of some of those dreams.

Session 19.5

10:00 – 10:50 A.M. HOW TO SUPPORT HEALING IN STUDENTS WITH THE ARTS

(Training Session)........................................................................... Dorset

Vincent R. McGrath, Linda C. McGrath, and Jack G. Blendinger, Mississippi State University

In this training session, participants were introduced to the arts and its connection to the healing process in students who can express their emotions by drawing, composing, creating, and performing. They experience less difficulty in their school work. Packets with information and materials on the arts successfully used by schools and institutions in dealing with grief were given to participants. The facilitators had personally experienced the loss of spouses, had organized a community grief support group, had worked with school counselors, and had conducted several national conference workshops on grief support.

Counselors report that recovery from loss can begin when the child has an opportunity to express his or her pain. The arts provide the means in which the child can express her/his negative feelings into something concrete. Students who participate in creative activities at school experience less difficulty with their school work and develop healthy coping skills. Teachers who are open to innovative ways that have been used successfully by others can handle the situations in wise strategies founded on sound psychological and social research methods and a mix of common sense.

Many teachers feel uncomfortable becoming grief counselors, and yet, they may be the only adults to whom students can openly express their grief. Parents need teachers to assist them during stressful times in their child's life. Whether it is from death, divorce, chronic or terminal illness, natural disaster, or any other type of change to their normal routines, students need the regular routine of school and their teachers to feel safe in their worlds. A national dialogue to consider intervention measures to brace children against the many possible interruptions to their lives and their families should be discussed in these times of international violence and human distress.

Session 19.6

10:00 – 10:50 A.M. REFLECTIVE OR CRITICAL THINKING............................................... Essex

Presider: Charles E. Notar, Jacksonville State University

Program Assessment Via Content Analysis of Service-Learning Reflections

Sherry L. Shaw, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

In response to increased importance of university programs incorporating learner-centered assessments for program improvement and the recent initiative to infuse service learning into interpreter education curricula, this project evaluated student perceptions of one program's first service-learning-enhanced course. The evaluation process and suggestions for improving the process discussed in this paper may serve as a model to other programs attempting to systematically assess efficacy of student-community partnerships within the context of coursework. Results from the content analysis of students' reflective writings during their experiences will be used to appraise teaching practices, determine feasibility for adding service-learning modules to additional courses, and assess student benefit from the project.

Participation in service-learning as an assignment in Interpreting for Persons who are Deaf-Blind required the students to critically reflect on their experiences by writing in response to instructor-guided questions that were formulated to evoke meaningful expression of how the course content tied to the community-based experience. By analyzing student journals across three critical times in the semester (beginning, first interaction, and culminating four-day retreat experience), program faculty sought to gain deeper understanding of the degree to which: (1) community-based learning activities promoted internalization of the course curriculum, and (2) students perceived the value of applying scholarship to experience.

This evaluation was conducted by coding and analyzing student journals, faculty/mentor commentary within the journal entries, and student interviews. Students from 2004-2005 provided their reflective journals for constant comparison analysis and participated in follow-up interviews regarding the depth of their experience in the campus-community partnership and the personal benefits of reflective writing. This presentation shared the results of the journal analysis around dominant themes and elaborated on possible expansion of service-learning opportunities within the program and improved program assessment.

An Analysis of a Service-Learning Project: Students' Expectations, Concerns, and Reflections

Tricia McClam, Joel Diambra, Bobbie Burton, Angie Fuss, and Daniel Fudge, University of Tennessee

Service-learning is increasingly used in a variety of academic areas to give students the opportunity to apply classroom learning in a real-world environment. Reflection, an essential component of service-learning, has two purposes: (1) measurement of student change, and (2) assessment of the experience.

This study examined the service-learning experiences of 22 undergraduate students at an adolescent psychiatric residential facility. As part of an upper division methods course, each student was required to apply a number of course concepts to her/his work with a client. The reflective component included daily meetings for problem solving and discussion and pre- and post-writings.

Pre- and post-experience reflections were analyzed for content, and themes were identified. First, each researcher read the transcripts independently and identified themes across respondents. Second, the researchers met, compared themes, and agreed upon commonly identified themes. Third, researchers independently read the data again and created a best fit, matching existing data to the common themes. The researchers met a final time to ensure agreement.

A content analysis of the reflective writings by the researchers revealed a number of pre- and post-themes. Hands-on practical experience, theory to practice, skill development and understanding, and career confirmation captured students’ expectations. Concerns described were relationships with client, confidence, and skills. Post-experience themes were client change, student feelings, student learning, activities/structure, relationship issues, and metaphors.

The results of this study supported the use of service-learning in college classrooms. Although some of the students were initially apprehensive, they were able to apply their textbook knowledge with real clients. This experience enabled them to learn more about working directly with clients and developing themselves professionally. These results will be useful to educators who are designing service-learning experiences, currently using the strategy in their teaching, or both.

Session 20.1

10:00 – 11:50 A.M. USING DRAWING-TOOLS IN FLASH 8 TO ENHANCE COMPUTER BASED

DESIGN (Two-Hour Training Session)......................................... Yorkshire

Ai-Lun Wu, University of Tennessee

This presentation was designed to help teachers who were interested in becoming more independent, proficient 2 D designer to work with the drawing-tools that are located in Flash 8 with the Wacom Pen and Tablet. Flash 8 allows teachers to develop interactive images that they can use for the classroom setting. This training session aimed at helping the teachers who have had the Wacom Pen and Tablet and want to know more about the wide range of possibilities for using them with Flash 8.

Session 21.1

11:00 – 11:50 A.M. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................................. Avon

Presider: Carlton R. McHargh, University of Alabama

Knowing and Understanding: Perceived Relationships and the Effect on Research

Terrance K. Harrington, University of Alabama

Beginning with a literature review that seemed to suggest that beliefs drove the direction of research, the investigator sought to determine if a definitive relationship between knowing and understanding was perceived by researchers. To accomplish this, the investigator broke the problem into four phases. First, the investigator established that any two concepts had five possible relationships, based on set theory. Given concepts A and B, A is either contained completely in B, B is contained completely in A, A or B are equivalent, A and B are not equal, but overlap, or A and B are disjoint. Second, the investigator established rules for placing knowing and understanding into one of the five categories, based on how the terms were used within articles. Papers were restricted to solely peer-reviewed to assure that text was used from field experts. In order to be categorized, both words “knowing” and “understanding” had to be present in each paper, and that an explicit or implied relationship had to exist between the two concepts. Third, the investigator created an online application to collect text from articles. A search was conducted of online education databases, using “knowing” and “understanding” on peer-reviewed articles. Finally, the investigator established a criterion for making a final decision on relationship.

Four levels of strength were defined based on percentages: (1) simple plurality (which may fall victim to Arrow’s Paradox (1960), (2) simple majority, (3) absolute majority, and (4) super-majority, 66% or greater of the articles listed in any one category. Results revealed that 71% of 425 articles fell within the category of “knowing is extended by understanding.” Based on the established definitions, the investigator claimed that “knowing is extended by understanding” was the definitive relationship held in the educational community, and that this relationship drove the majority of research design and effort in educational fields.

Caring Culture and Leadership Revealed: Narrative Non-Fiction Story

Method and the Crystallization Process

Anita L. Johnston, University of Central Arkansas

The intent of this study was to identify the characteristics of school culture and the leadership practices that exemplify an ethic of care. The chosen methodology was narrative non-fiction, for it is stories that offer an enhanced understanding of the context and culture in which one has membership. Selecting the school and principal for study was accomplished through purposive sampling.

Criteria detailed in the design included that the school had been rated “Exemplary” by the state education agency for the two previous years, and had a student population 35% or greater of minority heritage and 50% or greater participating in free or reduced meal programs. The principal had been in the position for more years than five that the design required, and teacher-participants had been on faculty three or more years. The researcher scheduled separate sessions with the principal and five teachers to record individual descriptions of the school and their experiences over time as members there. Although some questioning by the researcher was needed to maintain focus on the themes of care and power, the intent was to allow the stories to be told in their most natural voice. The stories were transcribed in narrative text just as told to the researcher.

The researcher witnessed crystallization occur as a greater narrative emerged revealing the common language of care, coherence of policy, program, and practice, and the overwhelming evidence of a prevailing ethic of care in the leadership there. The study provided evidence that narrative inquiry can be a powerful tool for educational leaders to more closely examine and inform practice.

Unexamined Research Assumptions Nullify Nature-Nurture

Paradigm of Human Development Theory

Charles McLafferty, University of South Florida

Since the 1800s, psychologists, sociologists, and educators have embraced Sir Francis Galton’s notion of nature vs. nurture. Galton wanted to separate apart the influences of genetics and environment in understanding such human traits as genius and leadership. In fact, Galton developed a precursor of correlation to study this idea. In the following decades, enhancements in research methodologies and statistics, such as those by Holzinger, have enabled researchers to determine the influences of nature vs. nurture in areas as diverse as development of intelligence and language, substance abuse, career choice, and schizophrenia.

Concerns have been raised about our modern nature-nurture studies, but none have simultaneously examined and challenged three assumptions that undergird them. The first assumption, unitivity, is that the variability associated with nature and nurture equals one; only genetics and environment make us who we are. The second assumption, unidimensionality, is that the influence and therefore variability of nature and nurture exist in the same dimension; one can only add similar units of measure. The third assumption, universality, is that the nature-nurture paradigm is universally valid for all traits studied.

A dimensional ontology is introduced to provide a new perspective, what Viktor Frankl called soma, psyche and noös: the physical body (soma), the emotions and mind (psyche), and that which is uniquely human, and includes meaning, purpose, free will, choice and responsibility (the noëtic). Phenylketonuria classically illustrates nature-nurture interaction. But in a dimensional context, PKU demonstrates the invalidity of all three assumptions, and by extension, Galton’s paradigm. Noëtic factors such as meaning (which includes the uniquely human meaning-capacity of symbol systems such as language) and choice interact with nature and nurture in human traits; therefore, studies that rely on these assumptions must be carefully re-evaluated. A new paradigm is needed: nature, nurture, and the noëtic.

Session 21.2

11:00 – 11:50 A.M. COLLEGE STUDENTS................................................................. Berkshire

Presider: Jean D. Krieger, Woodlake Elementary School

Assessment of Health Knowledge Among College Freshmen Students

at the Hashemite University in Jordan

Moayad A. Wahsheh, University of Alabama at Birmingham

The objectives of this descriptive study were assessing the general level of health knowledge among 625 male and female freshmen attending Hashemite University in 2005-06; comparing knowledge differences as related to gender, place of residence, and educational track in high school; determining health knowledge sources; and reviewing curricula for grades 1-12.

This study filled a gap, as no prior research described health knowledge among Jordanian college students. Use of the Ecological Model as a theoretical base distinguished this study from similar research in the professional literature. The cross-cultural adaptation process was performed, translating the Health Knowledge Inventory test into Arabic. Classroom sections were chosen through cluster random sampling. Content validity, overall internal consistency reliability (r = 0.83), and test-retest reliability (r = 0.88) were estimated.

Findings revealed: (1) students were least knowledgeable about communicable disease and most informed about nutrition; (2) interactions among gender, place of residence and stream, for general health knowledge and for knowledge of 11 specific health areas, were not significant, except for the interaction between gender/stream; (3) significant differences existed in general health knowledge as related to gender/stream; (4) gender was significant in the areas of nutrition, accident/safety, and consumer, environmental, mental, and sexual health; and (5) stream was significant for nine specific health areas and not for the areas of substance use/abuse and aging/death.

Media was the most common source of health knowledge, except for the areas of sexuality and nutrition. The most common sources of knowledge about sexuality and nutrition were personal reading and mother, respectively. Peer was the least common source for six health areas. Father was the least common source about sexuality. Almost 8% of curricular content is dedicated to 11 health areas across grades 1-12, with greatest emphasis on nutrition and environmental health. The researcher offered recommendations for practice and future research.

Discussion Occurring During Group Testing

Lola Aagaard, Ron Skidmore, and Belinda Riley, Morehead State University

Much of the cooperative learning movement is based on the work of Lev Vygotsky. If the goal is for student mastery of material, then it follows that tests and examinations should facilitate learning. Allowing cooperation during test-taking is a natural extension of Vygotsky’s theory (Klecker, 2002). The literature on cooperative test-taking reports lower student anxiety and better student attitudes as a result (Zimbardo, Butler, & Wolfe, 2003; Klecker, 2002; Giraud & Enders, 1998; Becker & Cardulla, 1995), as well as somewhat higher scores than independent testing (Zimbardo, Butler, & Wolfe, 2003; Lambiotte, et al., 1987). Group discussion by students during testing might also facilitate learning and performance, specifically for lower-achieving students because they might be more likely to read and discuss all of the response alternatives with group members, resulting in better conceptual understanding and an increase in performance.

This study investigated student interaction that occurred during group discussion of tests by 111 undergraduate students. Students took their first test independently. They were then allowed to discuss subsequent tests within homogeneous achievement groups. Following these discussion sessions, students marked their test responses independently. Group discussions were recorded (i.e., audio or video), and these were transcribed for analysis. The content of discussion across achievement groups was found to be very different. ‘A’ students engaged in conceptual debate and offered concrete examples to support their decisions. ‘D’ and ‘F’ students approached the discussion with limited conceptual understanding of the content. They typically asked each other to define basic terms and rarely entered into conceptual discussion or proffered examples. Occasionally, test-taking strategies became the focus of discussion (e.g., rote memorization of response alternatives). Although test performance improved substantially for 'D' and 'F' students in the group discussion format, it is doubtful that this was because of increased conceptual understanding.

University Women’s Experiences of Sexual Coercion

Velma L. Campbell and Beverly M. Klecker, Morehead State University

Studies about sexual coercion on university campuses have proliferated since the publication of the Koss, Gidycz, and Wisniewski (1987) seminal study (e.g., Abby, 2002; Banyard, Plante, Cohn, Moorhead, Ward, & Walsh, 2005; Billingham, Miller, & Hockenberry, 1999; Gross, Winslett, Roberts, & Gohm, 2006). This research study was undertaken to ascertain the prevalence of sexual coercion of female students at a regional state university in the south.

This descriptive research study surveyed a sample of 195 female students. Sexual coercion was defined as any type of unwanted sexual contact. The survey instrument was based on an instrument designed by Garrett-Gooding and Senter (1987). The instrument consisted of questions followed by categorical options. The resultant categorical data were reported as frequencies and percentages.

The sample included 40 freshmen, 100 sophomores, 42 juniors, and 13 seniors. The participants ranged in age from 18 to “over 25” with the majority in the 19-20 age range. The ethnic background of the participants was overwhelmingly Caucasian. The majority of participants were unmarried. Fifty-percent of the 195 students reported incidents of sexual coercion at some time during their lives. Twenty-six percent of the 195 participants reported being victims of attempted or completed rape. Fourteen percent of the women experienced at least one incident of coercion before the age of twelve. Thirty-percent of the students reported having experienced an incidence of sexual coercion since enrolling at the university. Of these 30%, only two women reported the incident to police. None of these women reported seeking counseling after any incident.

This study adds to the body of research about sexual coercion on university campuses. Since victims of sexual assault were found to be reluctant to seek help, outreach implications were discussed. The study included approximately 110 references from the research on sexual coercion of women.

Session 21.3

11:00 – 11:50 A.M. EDUCATIONAL REFORM.............................................................. Cornwall

Presider: Rayma L. Harchar, Southeastern Louisiana University

Challenges to School Finance Systems, From Equity to Adequacy: Are They So Different?

John J. Marshak, Virginia Commonwealth University

States, with the exception of a few, across the nation have or are facing challenges to their legislatures’ choice of distribution systems for the funding of public schools. Because of a combination of such things as the plaintiff’s choice of challenge, the wording of the state’s constitution, and/or the perspective on the issues chosen by the court to address, an outcome is hard to predict.

Verstegen has described the history of such challenges as three waves. The first was done in federal courts and based on the Equal Protection clause of the federal Constitution. This ended with the Rodriquez decision. The second wave was at the state level and was based, largely, on significant per-pupil funding gaps between districts. While the issue is easily documented, the question of the state’s constitutional requirement for equity in expenditures has had various interpretations. The third and current wave is entitled “adequacy.” Here the basic challenge has been, “Is the state meeting its constitutional obligation to educate its children at a level to meet the challenges that will be thrust upon them as adults?”

Because the constitutional obligation question has frequently been determined by previous state court decisions, the critical issues become: (1) defining the challenges, and (2) determining the level and cost associate with achieving it. An added need is that of an assessment system by which the “success” of the educational system can be monitored. Thus, there must be an examination of the outputs, as well as inputs, of the state’s educational system. An examination of the second and third wave decisions in each of two states’ courts is used to illustrate the latter two waves. This was followed by a discussion of how the adequacy issue can be considered, not as an independent approach, but as an extension of equity.

Learn-to-Work: A Case Study

Denise Richardson, Jacksonville State University

The purpose of this study was to discern if the Learn-to-Work workshop influenced participants to change their methods of instructions and methods of assessment to that which would support workplace skills. It was also the purpose of this research to determine if participants continued a relationship with business and industry. The evaluation of professional development workshops was considered important to increasing the quality of educators and student learning. This study used interviews, observations, surveys, and documents analysis to gather data from which conclusions were drawn. The conclusions indicated that the Learn-to-Work workshop was effective in influencing teachers to change their methods of instruction and methods of assessments.

Participants also reported contact with business and industry after attending LTW. The participants cited reasons for the success of the workshop. An example was gaining knowledge about what business and industry needed. The tours and speakers helped them to learn what skills the workplace needed for the 21st-century worker. Once they had learned what skills were needed, the collaboration with other teachers and, consequently, the activities generated, gave them methods to implement that would support workplace skills yet address state objectives. The participants also noted the assessment discussion, the lecture on workplace skills, industry math lectures, and technology lessons all influenced them to change their assessment techniques from traditional multiple choice, fill in the blank, and short answer to more non-traditional such as portfolios, projects, and other authentic assessment methods.

School Reform, Newspaper Reporting, and Shaping Public Opinion

James D. Kirylo and Ann K. Nauman, Southeastern Louisiana University

Particularly as it relates to school reform and accountability, the general public receives a significant portion of its information on public education through the newspaper, a medium capable of shaping and forming public opinion. Knowing this fact, just what is “John Q. Public” being told by way of the news media? Are all aspects of education, both the positive and the negative, being explored? Is the language itself calculated to please a constituency or is it less than honest, perpetuating a false reality of what schooling is and what authentic reform ought to be?

The Times-Picayune (circulation: 276,762; Sunday: 309,274) is the most widely circulated newspaper in the state of Louisiana, also reaching several gulf coast cities in Mississippi. In a computer search to find relevant articles from The Times-Picayune on school reform and school accountability, LexisNexis, an academic database, was used to enable the researchers to locate newspaper articles based on the key terms entered: school reform and school accountability. The time frame of the investigation was from April 1, 2003 to May 1, 2004, wherein 117 articles that had some reference to school reform and accountability were published.

To that end, this research presentation provided a brief history of how one came to be where one is today as it relates to the language of accountability and school reform. In addition, through what politicians, policy makers, and a population of educators is saying via The Times-Picayune, an explanation was given about how the printed media have a powerful role in shaping and forming public opinion, ultimately, rightly or wrongly, defining for the public what education is all about. Lastly, this presentation concluded with some implications relative to the language that politicians, policy-makers, and educators use in describing school reform, accountability, and the realities of schooling.

Session 21.4

11:00 – 11:50 A.M. POLICY............................................................................................ Devon

Presider: Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

Experiences of International Female Student Raising Children in the United States

Grace Jepkemboi, University of Alabama at Birmingham

This discussion paper reported the findings of a study that was conducted to understand what it means for female international students at an urban university in the southeast to raise a child while being enrolled as a full-time student. The study used a qualitative phenomenological approach that centered on the description of the meaning of the lived experiences, to explore the experiences of the female international student mothers raising children in the United States. Five female students were purposefully selected using criterion sampling.

Data were collected through in-depth, open-ended individual interviews each lasting an hour, and were audio taped and transcribed for analysis. The data analysis process involved phenomenological reduction, horizontalization, and imaginative variation. It also included bracketing of researcher’s experiences with the studied phenomenon, a process known as epoche. QSR N6 software was used for data storage, organization, and analysis. To ensure credibility, trustworthiness, and transferability of the findings, three verification procedures were used: (1) triangulation, (2) rich, thick descriptions, and (3) member checking.

Five themes that emerged from the findings of the study were: experiences of international student mothers with time, finances, culture, social support, and positive experiences while raising children at the United States. This phenomenological study is important because it addressed the issue of female international students raising children in the United States, which has not been adequately covered in the past literature.

This study brings a new dimension of one under researched group, the international female students and their experiences of child rearing in the United States. This study will benefit the international student community, the administrators of the International student, and the immigration policy makers.

Session 21.6

11:00 – 11:50 A.M. PARENT INVOLVEMENT.................................................................... Essex

Presider: Jennifer Bell, Auburn University

Parents’ Perceptions of Arkansas’ Act 603, The Parent Involvement Plan:

First- and Second-Year Results of a Three-year Study

Shelly Albritton, Jack Klotz, and Anita Johnston, University of Central Arkansas; Marcia Lamkin,

University of North Florida; and Jackie McBride, Arkansas State University

This presentation shared findings from the first two years of a three-year study (2004-2007) that focused on parents’ perceptions to determine whether public schools in Arkansas have made progress in their implementation of the parental involvement programs mandated by Arkansas Act 603 passed into law in 2003. Act 603 directed each school building in Arkansas to implement a parent involvement plan by September 1, 2003. Drawing from the diverse literature that demonstrates the many benefits of parents’ active involvement in the education process of their children, a number of studies have highlighted the positive impact that family involvement bears on student success, in addition to services and events that draw parents into deeper involvement with their students’ academic lives (Epstein, 1991, 1995; Bagin, Gallagher, & Kindred, 1997; Fuller & Olsen, 1998; Henderson, 1988; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Lewis, 2001; Lumsden, 1998; and Peterson, 1989).

A convenience sampling of parents was drawn from Arkansas’ P-12 schools. Subjects were asked to complete an attitudinal survey consisting of 32 items that was created using similar language from Act 603 in efforts to measure her/his perceptions of the school’s parental involvement program and five demographic items designed for descriptive purposes and for comparing respondents’ perceptions among grouping variables. The presenters provided participants a summary of the first- and second-year data gathered to examine statistical analyses of differences in parents’ perceptions regarding the parental involvement plan at schools between respondents’ age groups, race/ethnic groups, family structures, gender, grade-level groups, and school building size.

Participants in this session had the opportunity to discuss the findings and implications, and to share professional experiences with parent involvement. Handouts were provided.

An Examination of Parent and Teacher Opinions Regarding School Communication

Reenay R. H. Rogers and Margaret Rice, University of Alabama

Communication has been identified as a key contributor to parental involvement in schools. Parents and teachers need to communicate to support the educational endeavors of the child. An evaluation of the preferred modes of communication between teachers and parents provides useful insights into how technology is impacting communication. This pilot study examined teacher and parent opinions regarding various modes of communication involving both traditional venues such as print, telephone, and face-to-face, as well as more technological forms such as electronic mail and websites. Two Likert-type surveys were administered to parents and teachers from a regional K-12 Catholic school in a southeastern state. This school was selected because it was a convenient population. Statistical analyses, including t-tests and one-way ANOVAs, were used to test the null hypotheses. Chi-square analysis was used to test the individual survey items. Both surveys confirmed that parents and teachers recognized communication as important for student success in school.

Several significant findings were made when individual survey items were analyzed. The parent survey revealed that parents disagreed or strongly disagreed that the telephone was their preferred means of communication with the teacher. Results from the teacher survey revealed that a higher percentage of elementary teachers preferred learning of school events via a printed school newsletter compared to middle/high school teachers. Results also showed that younger teachers were more likely to be comfortable communicating with parents via e-mail. Teachers were more accepting of school websites than parents while parents preferred the traditional school newsletter. Technology provides promising new avenues for disseminating information to parents, yet this study indicated teachers and parents still prefer traditional methods of communication. Evidence needs to be gathered about why parents and teachers are not taking advantage of technology, especially as more non-English speaking families enter our school communities.

School Culture, Parent Involvement, and Accountability Outcomes: Evidence

from Kentucky’s Scholastic Audit for School Improvement

Alejandro Saravia, D. Clayton Smith, and Christopher Wagner, Western Kentucky University,

and Stephen K. Miller, University of Louisville

Under the Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990, all schools are expected to reach a Proficient score (100 on a 140-point scale) by 2014. The state established nine Standards and Indicators for School Improvement to guide school improvement. The standards are organized into three groupings: (1) Academic Performance (Curriculum; Classroom Evaluation/Assessment; Instruction); (2) Learning Environment (School Culture; Student, Family and Community Support; Professional Growth, Development and Evaluation); and (3) Efficiency (Leadership; Organizational Structure and Resources; Comprehensive and Effective Planning). Each standard has a number of specific indicators. To assist schools in coordinating all of these factors, the Kentucky Department of Education (KDE) developed a Scholastic Audit process, with trained teams of external reviewers. The first two rounds of audits included 175 elementary schools: all of the schools in the lowest category of progress on the overall state Accountability Index (mandated), plus volunteers seeking school improvement.

Although the KDE conducted preliminary analyses, no other studies of this database exist. This secondary analysis investigated the effect of Standard 4 (School Culture) on the Accountability Index, as mediated by Standard 5 (Student, Family and Community Support), controlling for demographics. Background factors included school-level %Female, %White, %Extended School Services, %Gifted, %Free/Reduced Lunch, plus year of audit.

All descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha for the standards were computed (Culture--11 Indicators, .91; Family/Community Support--5 Indicators, .77). Simultaneous multiple regression provided estimates of predictor variables and effect size (Adjusted R2 = .72). Significant demographic factors included %White, %Free/Reduced Lunch, year of audit, and %Gifted. Both Standard 4 and 5 were also significant, adding .06 to the Adjusted R2 (based on prior analyses). These results suggested that the Scholastic Audits have considerable potential as diagnostic information to guide school improvement efforts. These findings were discussed with respect to limitations of the data, equity issues, accountability, and need for future studies.

First- and Second-Grade Parents’ Perceptions in a Looping Setting

Rose B. Jones and Christa Martin, University of Southern Mississippi

The educational process of looping has been and continues to be debatable. Looping is usually referred to as a type of instruction with “a core group of students who remain with one teacher for multiple years.” This looping environment has been found by some researchers to provide a sense of “community” and “family.” A majority of studies supporting looping have been qualitative and case-studies. One research outcome finding concern has been “undesirable teachers” for the children. Few research studies have been conducted of parental perceptions of looping environments.

This study examined and compared perceptions of first and second-grade parents in a looping setting in two states. First-grade parents were in the South, and second-grade parents were in the southeast of the United States. Both classes were in the second year of looping, either K-1 or 1-2. Forty-four parents (18 first -grade and 26 second -grade) completed a survey of 36 objective questions. Permission was granted to use this five-point, Likert-type instrument. Questions pertaining to an educational looping environment were divided into four categories: parent attitude, student behavior, student motivation, and student attitude. Data were compiled and t-tests were run. Two significant differences were found: (1) first -grade parents’ attitudes were higher than those of second-grade parents, and (2) for student behavior, female children were higher than males. No significant differences were found in single parents or how many times the child looped.

Although research conducted of parent perceptions’ of the looping environment is limited, this study supported positive parental perceptions in four main categories. In addition, this study was not a qualitative or case-study as the majority of studies that support looping have been.