Session Numbers: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
Acknowledgements	Officers	Abstracts	Participants	Home	PDF Files

Session 1.1

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                          ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Scott Bauer, George Mason University

Problems Associated with the Implementation of School District Accountability Programs

Ronald A. Styron and David E. Lee, University of Southern Mississippi

With the implementation of The No Child Left Behind Act, schools throughout the nation have been forced to put into practice some type of accountability program.  Many of these programs have met with resistance as a result of the problems associated with their initiation.  Problems such as funding, professional development, and central office support have been hypothesized as impediments to accountability programs, but there has been little scientific research on this topic.  This research helped identify the most common problems associated with the implementation of accountability programs as identified by school principals.  The research was qualitative in nature.  Data were generated by 50 randomly selected principals from public schools in the state of Mississippi.  During the spring of 2003, a survey was mailed to principals asking them to identify the most significant problems they encountered when implementing accountability programs and/or policies.  Participants listed the problems in rank order of degree of difficulty from most significant (1) to least significant (10).  Responses were anonymous.

Categories for responses were developed by a team of researchers and then reviewed anonymously by an independent team of graduate students.  Responses were then grouped by categories following the same process as that used to determine the categories.  Data were analyzed after recording the relative frequency with which each response category appeared as most important and also analyzed using an ordinal weighting method to determine the number of times a response was given.  Principals identified curriculum and professional development concerns as the most significant impediments to the implementation of accountability programs.  The results of this study may be used by local school districts to help determine appropriate strategies for the successful implementation of accountability programs.  Follow-up studies may be conducted to help determine effective curriculum and professional development programs.

The Relationship between Perfectionism and Achievement

in a Graduate-Level Research Methodology Course

Lisa A. Witcher, Spalding University; Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, University of South Florida;

Kathleen M. T. Collins, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville;

and Ann E. Witcher, University of Central Arkansas

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between three dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially-prescribed perfectionism) and achievement in a graduate-level research methodology course. Self-oriented perfectionists tend to set and pursue rigid and unrealistically high standards for themselves and to undertake stringent self-appraisal in an attempt to attain perfectionism and to avoid failure. Other-oriented perfectionists hold unrealistic standards for significant others, place pressure on other individuals to be perfect, and evaluate exactingly others’ behavior. Socially prescribed perfectionists believe that significant others (e.g., friends, family, classmates) hold unrealistic standards for them, rigorously evaluate them, and pressure them to be perfect. Achievement in the research methodology course, which involved students' knowledge of research concepts, methodologies, and applications, was measured individually in all sections via comprehensive written midterm and final examinations. A canonical correlation analysis revealed that self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism predicted levels of performance in the research methods course. Specifically, graduate students with relatively high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism tended to have the highest levels of performance in the class, with socially prescribed perfectionism serving as a suppressor variable. Self-oriented perfectionism was the best predictor of performance, highlighting the relative importance of this dimension of perfectionism in the context of learning in research methodology courses. Implications were discussed and recommendations for future research provided.

No Parent Left Behind

Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi, and Jack J. Klotz, University of Central Arkansas

Since the advent of “No Child Left Behind,” state and local departments of education have scrambled to put into place systems that ensure that every student is achieving at proficient levels. The foci have been on testing, teacher quality, scientific research-based programs, and tracking of students. This presentation highlighted the rationale and need for keeping parents involved in the educational process and included a review of the literature regarding:  (1) the historical overview of parent involvement from colonial times to present; (2) the benefits of parental involvement including students with higher grades, higher standardized test scores, better long-term achievement, more positive attitudes and behavior, more successful school programs, and more effective schools; and (3) impediments to parent involvement including parents’ personal experiences, level of education, socioeconomic status, transportation/child care, expectations, and others.

This session provided practical, effective strategies for ensuring that there will be “No Parent Left Behind.” Strategies described activities for both parent education and teacher education.

Improving Student Achievements: Other Schools and Ours

Jianliang Wang and Jeanne Fiene, Western Kentucky University

This study was a comparison, at the micro level, of American public schools and Asian schools about organization of schools, classrooms, curriculum, instructions, teacher training, and student personnel development. Specific methods and models in raising student achievement were discussed. Issues and concerns about educational reforms in the United States and other countries were also discussed.

Session 1.2

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           ATTITUDES                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Pamela M. Broadston, University of Arkansas, Little Rock

Tutors’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Teaching Reading and Writing Strategies and Content

Jun Li, Beth Richmond, and Dana G. Thames, University of Southern Mississippi

The intent of this study was to examine the relationship between tutors’ knowledge and attitudes related to content reading and writing strategies and the tutors’ actual implementation of those content reading and writing strategies in a tutoring program in the Center for Literacy and Assessment at the University of Southern Mississippi. The researchers observed nine tutors’ instructional behaviors during their tutoring sessions in the Center for Literacy and Assessment.  The researchers investigated these tutors’ knowledge of reading and writing strategies and their attitudes toward the incorporation of reading and writing strategies, as well as their recommendations for use of those reading and writing strategies by administering the Attitudes Toward Content Area Reading (ATCAR) and the Content Area Reading Strategies (CARS). Thereafter, the results of these two instruments were converted into numerical values and calculated for correlational analyses. The results showed that there were significant correlations between tutors’ knowledge, attitudes, and recommendations of teaching reading and writing strategies in their tutorial programs. Observation of tutoring also revealed uses of such reading and writing strategies with expository text in tutoring sessions. Recommendations were provided.

Student-Centered Graduate Statistics

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences,

and Pamela M. Broadston, University of Arkansas, Little Rock

This study investigated the attitudes toward statistics of graduate students in a student-centered, activity-based course.  The 12 sections involved in this study were offered in the spring and fall 2001, 2002, 2003 and spring 2004 terms.  There were 99 participants for whom there were complete data.  All were enrolled in advanced statistics, with 70 females and 29 males.  The design of the study was pretest-posttest with all students being taught by the same instructor.  The instrument used was the Statistics Attitude Survey (Roberts and Bilderback, 1980).  The calculated chi square (244.10, p<0.0000005) tempered with Cohen's w (0.19) indicated that there were only small differences in the distributions of ranks between male and female pretest and posttest results.  Most of these differences occurred as increases in the number of rankings at each end of the scales.  That is, after the course, students felt more strongly that they agreed or disagreed with statements about aspects of statistics.  For example, both male and female students agreed more strongly that “Statistics will be useful to me in my profession when I evaluate other people.” On the other hand, males disagreed more strongly that “Statistics is the most difficult course I have taken” while females disagreed more strongly that “I must constantly review statistics or I forget it.”  Comments from open-ended evaluation forms may help explain the results of the survey:  “Opportunity to create a statistical problem and run it,” “I liked the flexibility,” “relaxed environment,” and “I believe that I am better equipped for other classes in this area.”  The conclusion was that offering a student-centered course might help improve students' attitudes about certain aspects of statistics.

An Examination of the Attitudes Toward Mathematics in College Undergraduates

Martha Tapia, Berry College, and George E. Marsh II, University of Alabama

Attitudes play an important role in achievement and persistence in mathematics courses.  Recognizing the importance of attitudes, there is an increasing awareness of the need to examine attitudes.  The development of a positive attitude toward a subject is probably one of the most prevalent educational goals.  While the literature shows that attitudes toward mathematics are important, there is a paucity of research about the different factors that influence the attitudes toward mathematics. The Attitudes Toward Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) was developed to measure students’ attitudes toward mathematics based on exploratory factor analysis identifying four factors: self-confidence, value, enjoyment, and motivation. This study examined the effects of gender and college standing on attitudes toward mathematics of undergraduate students using a sample of 391 students enrolled in mathematics classes who completed the ATMI.  Data were analyzed using a multivariate factorial model with four factors of the ATMI as dependent variables and two independent variables, gender, and college standing.  Assumptions were examined with multivariate analysis of variance.  The interaction of gender and college was found to be significant in confidence and value with small effect size.  Male seniors scored significantly higher in confidence than all other male students.  Female seniors scored significantly higher in value than female freshmen.

Session 1.3

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           INSTRUCTION                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Ronald Skidmore, Morehead State University

Computer-Managed Supplement to Instruction

Lynn W. Varner, Delta State University

Instructional methods are appearing on the horizon with the “fix” for students being espoused. This is especially true of technology where research shows technology in itself is not enough to improve student learning. However, computer use can be beneficial for individualizing instruction to the learner’s needs. This study attempted to verify whether a computer-managed program, the LeapTrack Assessment and Instruction System, could assist in raising achievement levels. Four schools in the Mississippi Delta were chosen to participate: two classified as low-achieving, and two classified as high-achieving according to Mississippi standards. One high- and one low-achieving school were used as control; in these schools, the students were given the assessment portions of the program. In the other schools, assessment and instructional materials, as prescribed by the program’s Learning Paths, were utilized. This allowed teachers to prescribe skills for students to practice according to the diagnostic assessment. The researchers compared the Mississippi Curriculum Test scores at the end of the 2nd grade to those of the same students at the end of the 3rd grade after the students in the treatment schools had been exposed to the LeapTrack program for one-half of the academic year. Using ANOVA, no significant differences were found between the groups in mathematics or language arts. In reading there was a significant difference F (1, 97) = 44.25, p = .000; eta² = .479. According to observations and interviews, the teachers in the treatment schools used the program in reading an average of 30 minutes two-to-three days per week. The use in mathematics and language arts was much less. It would be interesting to repeat this study with control over use in all three subject areas and to track time-on-task for program use to examine achievement increase or decrease as related to actual amount of interaction with the program.

The Uses of Bibliotherapy Techniques in the Classroom

Carol B. Tanksley and Joyce C. Nichols, University of West Florida

The purpose of this paper was to determine the most appropriate use of bibliotherapy in the lives of school-aged children.  Bibliotherapy is a term coined over a half century ago.  Bibliotherapy can play an instrumental role in personal development and social skills.  Bibliotherapy is an approach to helping children with personal problems using books.  In light of the Columbine tragedy, teachers should be prepared to use bibliotherapy as an alternative clinical technique for dealing with violence and the loss of life. In addition, bibliotherapy exposes children to stories of other children who have experienced a similar problem or situation.  Often, children have a birds-eye view of how to deal with issues and trauma in their lives.  Bibliotherapy can expand their horizons as they deal with these issues.  Bibliotherapy will provide opportunities for teachers to use guided reading of written materials to help children grow in self-awareness and think critically about their problem.  Finally, bibliotherapy will help children with practical applications for engaging in self-actualization through the uses of bibliotherapy.

                       The objectives of the activity included:  (1) to determine if teachers use literature when children experience trauma such as the death of a parent or pet, illness, divorce, or relocation; (2) to determine the techniques that teachers use for addressing bibiotherapy, such as reading aloud, guided independent reading, and collaborative inquire; and (3) to determine the effectiveness of bibliotherapy with school-aged children.

What Educators Can Learn From Multiplayer Computer Gaming: A Study

of Who Is Playing and Their Perceptions of Learning

Jonathan B. Beedle, University of Alabama

Video and computer multiplayer gamers’ perceptions were measured to determine if they believed higher order thinking skills such as communication, teamwork, motivation, creativity, and problem solving were developed from playing multiplayer games. A survey instrument was created, consisting of 25 Likert-style questions focusing on each of the five identified higher order thinking skills. Each skill was addressed by five statements, and the respondents were asked to rate each statement on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Since multiplayer gamers are a group that is difficult to locate and about which there is very little research, the survey was administered using the snowball sampling method. Responses indicated that the majority of respondents perceived that skills in each of these categories were increased by participation in multiplayer video and computer games. Cronbach’s alpha was computed to determine the internal consistency of each question set. Three of the sets, those related to motivation, problem solving and creativity, had high reliability of .70 or greater. Although the results of this study are not generalizable, the demographic information was similar to previous research on computer and video gaming that has found that the majority of gamers are white males from middle to upper class households. The findings of this study suggest that additional research should be performed to determine whether the aspects of multiplayer video and computer games that promote higher order thinking skills can be incorporated into educational curricula.

Session 1.4

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           TEACHER EDUCATION                          Gardenview D

Presider:                                 Vivian H. Wright, University of Alabama

Using Bloom's Taxonomy to Develop Instructional Units in a Student Teacher Course

Jenetta R. Waddell and Darlene Crone-Todd, Delta State University

Educators recognize the importance of teaching higher order thinking skills in both elementary-secondary school and college. This study combined quantitative and qualitative data to investigate the implementation of strategies that enable student teachers in secondary education to apply their knowledge of a modified version of Bloom’s Taxonomy within a three-week block course completed immediately before their student teaching began.  Using the modified taxonomy to assess the level of each instructional objective, each student refined a teaching unit developed in a methods course in her or his discipline, with particular emphasis on including higher order thinking instructional objectives in the unit. In addition to independent assessment, the students work in pairs to develop a consensus on the level of their partner’s unit objectives, and then the objectives were compared to data generated by two experts (professors and/or graduate students) who had also independently identified the level of each student’s unit instructional objectives.  Data were gathered to determine the agreement between the experts’ determinations and those of the students, and feedback was provided to the students in the course. The results were that the group agreements were more in agreement with the experts than with the individual assessments, and that the recommendation will be to use this methodology in formulating instructional objectives. 

Becoming Teachers: What Preservice Autobiographies Reveal About Motivations

for Teaching Secondary Science and Social Studies

Susan P. Santoli and Barbara Salyer, University of South Alabama

This study described the results of the analysis of science autobiographies of 36 students and the social studies autobiographies of 31 students compiled over a 15-month period. Among the science students, 16 were pursuing a traditional teacher preparation program and 20 students (18 of whom were teaching) were seeking alternative certification.  Among the social studies students, 25 students were pursing a traditional teacher preparation program and five students (three of whom were teaching) were seeking alternative certification.  Three major questions were addressed:  (1) what developmental and socialization patterns, if any, are revealed in these personal narratives? (2) what differences and similarities exist in the life stories of the science and social studies students? and (3) what differences and similarities exist in the life stories of students enrolled in either a traditional teacher preparation program or a program leading to alternative certification?  Both science groups described the influence of time spent outdoors as a child, intense curiosity about the world and how things work, and the influence of parents and of science (and mathematics) teachers as major factors in their decision to pursue science (or science teaching) careers.  Both social studies groups described the influence of parents and grandparents, as well as that of social studies teachers, as major factors in their decision to pursue social studies careers.  As well, visits to historic places both in the U.S. and overseas were major influences.  There were more similarities than differences between the science and social studies groups and between the traditional and alternative certification groups for both disciplines.

The Use of a Modified Bloom’s Taxonomy in Developing Higher Order Thinking

Darlene Crone-Todd, Jenetta Waddell, and Alicia Satterfield, Delta State University

Higher order, or critical, thinking is a hallmark of education. One method of assessing higher order thinking is to use taxonomies, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain. While Bloom’s taxonomy has been widely used, it has low reliability for assessment of the level of educational objectives and learning outcomes. Recently, a modified taxonomy has shown promise for developing more reliable assessments of both objectives and outcomes, and is being used for both online and on-campus higher education courses. This paper covered a review of the research that demonstrated that the modified taxonomy has shown good reliability for the Knowledge/Comprehension, Application and Analysis levels, and that further research is needed for the Synthesis and Evaluation levels. In addition, by making objectives clear to students and providing encouragement in the form of feedback and course credit, educators can create a learning environment that requires more student engagement and is conducive to creating critical thinkers who can optimize higher order thinking skills.

Session 1.5

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           OBESITY IN CHILDREN: MAJOR AFFLICTION IN AMERICAN

                                                    LIFE  (Training Session)                         Gardenview E

Vincent McGrath, Jack Blendinger, and Linda C. McGrath, Mississippi State University

The training session used an open-forum format that allowed the participants to discuss critical issues affecting the emotional lives of children whose health has been stressed by obesity and related health problems. With a national focus on the current health crisis in children, especially obesity and diabetes, the participants discussed major social issues associated with unhealthy consumption of food and dietary practices, research findings on early infant feeding patterns, adolescent health issues, social costs, pressures on schools to change dietary practices in the food programs, and the resistance to life style changes in the general American family. Emphasis was on effective interventions to change institutional and social behaviors recognized to be erosive and seriously destructive of establishing long-term healthy dietary habits.

Session 1.6

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING (Symposium)                          Le Conte

Organizers:                          Robert C. Donaghy, Patricia Duffley-Renow, and Dessa Beswick, University

of Tennessee, Knoxville

Recent Research on Self-Directed Learning

Robert C. Donaghy, Patricia Duffley-Renow, and Dessa Beswick, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Over the past five years, several research projects in self-directed learning have been undertaken at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Included among these studies are three content analyses and five dissertations. This symposium presented a synthesis of the work done to date and discussed the implications for research and practice.

Five Dissertations Emerging from the University of Tennessee Self-Directed Learning Research Group

Jim Canipe, Morehead State University

This paper summarized the findings of five dissertations that have emerged from the University of Tennessee research group. These studies investigated self-directed learning and the relationship between learning styles, cross-cultural adaptability, creativity, and resilience, as well as the development of an instrument to measure self-directedness.

Messing about Under the Hood: Expert Opinion about the Condition of Self-Directed Learning

Robert C. Donaghy, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Over the past five years, several research projects in self-directed learning have been undertaken at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Included among these studies are three content analyses and five dissertations. This symposium presented a synthesis of the work done to date and discusses the implications for research and practice.

The PRO-SDLS: An Instrument for Measuring Self-Directedness

Susan L. Stockdale, Kennesaw State University

Quantitative analyses of SDL behaviors frequently rely upon findings derived from Guglielmino’s (1977) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS).  However, as educational psychology has expanded the knowledge base to include topics such as self-determination and self-regulation and their affect on self-directed learning behaviors, the psychometric properties of a quantitative measurement instrument (PRO-SDLS, Stockdale & Brockett, 2003) based on four factors of control, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy and initiative was presented and discussed.

The Literature of Self-Directed Learning: A Synthesis of Three Content Analyses

Dewey Fogerson, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

In a recent dissertation, a qualitative inquiry was made into the contributions and experiences of those scholars receiving the highest number of citations in the literature of self-directed learning. Contributions to the literature were presented along with a sharing of the experiences of the eight scholars interviewed.

Some Thoughts on Future Directions for Self-Directed Learning Research

Ralph G. Brockett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

From the early 1970s through the early 1990s, self-directed learning was among the most active research topics in adult education. Since then, however, this line of inquiry appears to have slowed considerably. Today, many important questions about self-directed learning remain unanswered. This paper explored possible directions for future scholarship on self-directed learning.

Session 1.7

9:00 A.M. – 9:50 A.M.                           DISPLAYS                          Lower Lobby

High School Dropouts in Four-Year Institutions

Luria S. Stubblefield, Southern University and A&M College

The topic of persistence in higher education has been thoroughly researched, particularly for traditional students.  This investigation of the existing research on the persistence of general educational development (GED) recipients revealed that most of the studies have been of a quantitative nature, focusing on GED recipients enrolled in community colleges.  Research studies that highlight the persistence of GED recipients enrolled in four-year institutions from the perspectives of the students are scarce.  In an effort to augment the existing body of literature, this study focused on the persistence of GED recipients in four-year institutions.

This study employed a qualitative methodology.  The theoretical framework was based on symbolic interactionism.  The main research question was:  What experiences affect the persistence of GED recipients in four-year institutions?  Data were collected in two phases.  After a pilot study, Phase I consisted of two focus group interviews.  Phase II consisted of semi-structured, in-depth interviews, students’ records document analysis, photography, and photo elicitation interviews.  Lincoln and Guba’s Constant Comparative Method was used to analyze the data.

This study provided an opportunity for GED recipients to voice their experiences relative to their persistence in four-year institutions.  Nine themes evolved from the data, such as quitting is not an option, I just can’t go back, and math anxiety.  The participants provided rich evidence that GED recipients have many diverse experiences that affect their persistence in four-year institutions.

This study served important roles as it added to the limited body of literature on the persistence of GED recipients in four-year institutions.  This study provided valuable information that may have a positive impact on the educational experiences of GED recipients enrolled in four-year institutions.  Additionally, this study may provide higher education officials with information to aid in the development or enhancement of policies that impact this segment of their student population. 

Who Publishes in the Journal of Educational Psychology?  A Ten-Year Review

Meiko Negishi and Angelia T. Carruth, Mississippi State University

The purpose of this study was to examine a variety of elements related to publishing and authorship in the Journal of Educational Psychology, namely:  (1) number of authors per article, (2) gender of authors, (3) length of articles, (4) gender of authors in relationship to authorship position, (5) institutional affiliation of authors, and (6) student authorship.  A total of 594 articles published between the years of 1993-2003 (except 2002) in the Journal of Educational Psychology were examined.  Frequencies and percents were obtained and correlations were preformed on the resulting data.  Preliminary results found: (1) the mean number of authors per article was 2.68 (SD = 1.36) with a maximum of eight authors, (2) slightly more female authors were represented than male authors, (3) article length did not correspond to the number of authors per article, (4) the ratio of female to male authors in the first and second position of authorship was equally distributed, (5) the number of articles authored by individuals of the same institution were slightly higher than authored by individuals from different institutions, and (6) the number of articles authored by students was less than 9% of the total articles published.  Additional results with figures were presented.

A Case Study of Vocabulary Instruction for High School Students

John A. Sargent and Rachel Barrington, East Texas Baptist University

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of vocabulary instruction techniques in a high school sophomore-level advanced placement English classroom.  Vocabulary instruction is crucial to all aspects of education. Teachers continue to struggle with effective methods of vocabulary instruction. The research question guiding this qualitative intrinsic case study was:  How does didactic and formal instruction of vocabulary words affect the meaning construction of advanced sophomore English students? The participants in this case study were 23 advanced placement sophomore English high school students in a suburban high school located in northeast Texas.   The case study took place over a 14-week period. Action research methodology facilitated insights on a daily basis due to interaction between the participants and researcher.  Data collection procedures included observations/field notes, reflective journal, student interviews and teacher interviews. Categories were generated through the constant comparison method with continual refining and analysis. Two themes emerged from the data analysis. First, students who learn vocabulary in a formal didactic manner do not comprehend or retain the majority of the words.  Second, students undergoing this type of instruction report this type of instruction as boring and engage in off-task behavior.  Implications from this case study are in several areas and are important for teachers who instruct vocabulary in the classroom. First, teachers must seek innovative methods for vocabulary instruction that utilize active learning processes and allow the student to use vocabulary in a climate of social constructivism.  Second, didactic traditional instruction of vocabulary results in students who seek stimulation by engaging in off-task behavior.

Graphic Organizers to Support Qualitative Research Design

Jeffrey B. Romanczuk and Vicki Violette, Knox County (TN) School System,

and Vince Anfara, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Historically, qualitative researchers have been critiqued for non-disclosure of many of the methodological decisions they make. Qualitative analyses are often presented and readers know little about the decisions that were made or the path that was followed in arriving at a particular analysis. Discussions regarding standards for assessing qualitative research and validity issues have not sufficiently addressed questions concerning this privatization. Recently, Anfara, Brown, and Mangione (2002) called for more public disclosure of these methodological decisions in an attempt to assess the rigor and analytical defensibility of this paradigm.  This poster session addressed these disclosure issues in qualitative and mixed methods research through looking at the use of graphic organizers tables and figures to assist in explaining research designs, interview protocols, the presentation of discrepant data, triangulation of data analysis, the development of themes, and the relationship between data sources and a study's research questions. For the purpose of the poster display, attention was devoted to the research design maps. These visuals displayed the scope of the research to be undertaken, explained how the data collection methods are triangulated, and how qualitative and quantitative methods are employed in methodological triangulation.  The accompanying paper addressed other graphic organizers listed above. The participants in this study included 12 doctoral students in an advanced qualitative methods course who experimented with these tables and figures during spring 2004. Additional data were collected by having each participant respond to a series of reflective questions about the process. The goal was to demonstrate how these graphic organizers could make public the links between methods and analysis that are often hidden or intuitive, especially in qualitative research.

Facing the Challenge: Using Scientifically-Based Research in Schools

Jane H. McHaney, Armstrong Atlantic State University

Every day one expects people to base their practices on evidence that demonstrate proven results – doctors diagnosing patients, lawyers advising clients, and educators teaching our children.  In fact, the U.S. Congress that passed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001 believes so strongly in the use of scientifically-based research (SBR) that it is referenced over 100 times within the pages of the legislation – in every section and on every topic.  This display presentation answered the following questions:  How will educators know what programs and practices are based on scientific research?  How will they integrate SBR into daily practice?  How will SBR change teaching and learning? How will educators make decisions about SBR as it relates to their specific database needs?

The focus on improving teacher effectiveness and raising student achievement through the use of scientifically-based research (SBR) is fundamental to the successful implementation of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act.  The law requires knowledge and application of scientifically-based research in all curricular areas, instructional methods and strategies, parent involvement, professional development, etc.  This requirement places quality research in high demand and presents challenging opportunities for educators.  This presentation addressed some of these challenges.

This display shared an informal discussion of innovative ways that educators can integrate scientifically-based research into practice. To make these concepts more readily understood, the display provided more detailed explanations and examples to illustrate the SBR components.  

Session 2.1

10:00 A.M. – 10:50 A.M.                           ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Christopher Skinner, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Differential Effects of Cooperative Learning Contingencies on High-, Average-,

and Low-Performing College Students

Briana L. Hautau, Erin Carroll, and Robert L. Williams, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Some past research has indicated that while low- and average-performing students may benefit from cooperative learning, high-performing students may not. This study attempted to determine what type of contingency would benefit students at all performance levels. The study contrasted the effects of two different contingencies on the performance of high, average, and low performers.  The objective was to determine the pattern of change for the three performance levels within each contingency and to contrast the patterns between the two contingencies.  A total of 365 students in an undergraduate human development course over a two-semester period participated in the study.  Student scores across three unit exams served as the principal dependent measure.  Students were put into heterogeneous groups based on their exam performance in the baseline unit. In the first-semester, a group contingency was implemented in which each student earned 10 bonus points if their group mean increased one point from the baseline to the treatment exam.  The second-semester contingency was a group + individual contingency in which each member of the group earned six bonus points if the group mean increased one point from the baseline to the treatment exam and earned an additional four points if the individual either earned an A or increased their score.  A principal finding was that high performers maintained their high scores from the baseline to the treatment phase under the group + individual contingency but decreased under the group-only contingency.  The average and low performance groups under both contingencies increased their performance from the baseline to the treatment phase.  An overall conclusion from this study was that the right combination of cooperative reward contingencies, namely, a combined group contingency with individual accountability, can benefit students at all performance levels.

Adoption and Abandonment of Block Scheduling: One System's Decision

Dana L. Key, University of Alabama

Research examining student achievement in block-scheduled schools compared to traditional schools showed mixed and inconclusive results (Vawter, 1998; Richardson, 2000; Ferguson, 1999).  Studies reported findings such as: (1) grades students earned in their courses usually improved but sometimes did not, (2) failure rates improved or did not, (3) honor roll attainment increased, (4) sometimes there were increases in graduation rates, and (5) there were increases or decreases in AP and ACT test scores. Marshak (1997) saw the block period as a structural lever because its length simultaneously invited and impelled teachers to change their teaching (p.1). Researchers placed a heavy load of expectations on the block schedule as it would serve as both a lever and a stage in the development of a new vision of high school (p. 30). This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods and specifically compared and contrasted the disaggregated data test score data from Marshall County, AL. Findings suggested that while teachers, students, parents, and some administrators had very positive feelings toward block scheduling, this scheduling reform had a profound, negative impact on students’ test scores in this school system.  Reduced math and ACT scores were attributed to irregular planning time, little opportunity to modify curriculum, and the provincial examination system. Scheduling (extra) study periods during class periods has not worked well or produced higher academic achievement. Stakeholders in education from the community, administrators, teachers, and teacher educators need to consider the demands on the teachers and students in a block schedule and weigh carefully the benefits and risks to the success of educational programs.

Improving Vocabulary Skills of ELL Students for Gateway Testing

Connie McGinnis and Patricia Word, East High School, Morristown (TN),

and Rosalind R. Gann, East Tennessee State University

High stakes standardized testing has become a commonly used tool for grade-level promotion and high school graduation across the United States.  Few, if any, accommodations are being made for non-native speakers and those with learning disabilities.  A major problem with the test is its vocabulary level.  In an attempt to boost scores on the Gateway Assessment, the authors implemented a program where students created their own vocabulary glossaries consisting of words they found troublesome.  Students selected words by highlighting texts and making lists.  Words on lists were annotated for future study and recognition.

Session 2.2

10:00 A.M. – 10:50 A.M.                           COGNITION                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Barbara Salyer, University of South Alabama

Haskell's Taxonomies and Principles of Transfer of Learning: Implications for Classroom Instruction

Gerald J. Calais, McNeese State University, and E. JoAnn Belk, University of Memphis

Research suggests that transfer of learning differs in kind, occurs at different levels, and influences all learning, memory, problem solving, and cognitive processes.  Although the transfer of basic skills, knowledge, and thinking skills is integral to our educational aspirations and expectations, many students believe that little of what they learned in school benefited them later in life.  Not surprisingly, transfer of learning persists as one of the most vexing problems in the classroom.  The picture currently emerging has led some learning theorists to conclude that education's current emphasis on learning strategies and heuristics is inadequate for meaningful transfer to occur primarily because of an inadequate theoretical base. Information gleaned from articles and empirical studies was selected from psychologists of various theoretical orientations, including but not limited to, the following:  Richard Anderson, Gary Borich, John Borkowski, Anne Brown, Joseph Compione, Michelene Chi, Robert Glaser, Robert Haskell, Richard Mayer, Donald Perkins, Lauren Resnick, and Edward Thorndike. Haskell's proposed theory of transfer of learning implies that one needs to make a paradigmatic shift regarding how one defines and attempts to achieve transfer.  His system entails the following: (1) a taxonomy for levels of transfer implies six precise degrees of similarity; (2) a taxonomy for kinds of transfer implies that type of transfer may be classified into two categories: (a) transfer predicated on five types of knowledge, or (b) transfer predicated on fourteen specific types of transfer per se; and (3) a general theory of transfer that requires 11 learning and instructional principles in order for significant transfer and learning to materialize. These new insights into Haskell's proposed theory of transfer of learning have implications for classroom instruction and assessment, curriculum design, teacher educator programs, national standards, and state standards and benchmarks.

The Art and Science of Teaching

Paul B. Webb, Cosby High School

The 3,000 word position paper, The Art and Science of Teaching, covered five main topics:  (1) metaphors for teaching, (2) the similarity of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development to Robert Sapolsky’s stress graph, (3) puberty and peers, (4) reflective thought, and (5) creativity. Three metaphors for teaching were discussed: Socrates as midwife, Parker Palmer’s teacher as sheepdog, and Francis Bacon’s comparison of researchers to ants, spiders, and bees.  Bees gather pollen from many sources, internalize it, and make something new and wonderful. Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development was compared with a stress/performance graph that resembled an inverted U.  Considering the spectrum of talent in a classroom, encouraging peak performance is a challenge. The effect of puberty on peer relations was explored in section three.  Erik Erikson’s stage theory of development was compared with William Glasser’s insights from The Quality School. Facilitating reflective thought and creativity comprised the heart of the paper.  John Locke, William James, John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, E.O. Wilson, and perhaps most importantly Herman Hesse were quoted concerning reflective thought.  Examples of cross-curricular assignments that cause students to reflect and recode information were given.  Organic denominators for discrete data sets will engender cognitive integration.  The fraction for the student assignment, I Am Solar Powered, looked like this: sun, photosynthesis, cell respiration, digestion, respiration, circulation. This section stressed the importance of play to creativity.  Lev Vygotsky, Carl Jung, Ernest Dimnet, and Arnold Hauser were quoted.  Didactic instruction supplies toy soldiers, reflective thought arranges them in set formation, and creativity finds the myriad combinations of battle.  The three R’s should be precursors to reflect, refine, and rejoice.  The combination to creativity lies in the tumbling of cognitive structures, but only play will turn the dials.

Cognitive Interests of Nontraditional College Students

Sandra M. Harris, Troy State University, Montgomery

This study investigated the construct validity of the Cognitive Interest Inventory (CII) developed by Steve Butler for use with nontraditional college students. Theoretical beliefs regarding how individuals acquire knowledge provide the basis for decision making by curriculum developers, teachers, and learners. Habermas developed a theory which posits that knowledge is acquired from technical, practical, and emancipatory interests. Habermas’ theory is relevant to education because it provides a basis for explaining how people learn. In spite of the theoretical implication of Habermas’ theory, few researchers have investigated the relationship between cognitive interests and knowledge acquisition; this study sought to bridge the gap. The CII is a 45-item, self-report inventory that categorizes individuals according to their cognitive interests. The variables of interest were scores obtained on the CII and course performance. Participants were 479 students enrolled in psychology courses at a nontraditional university located in the southeast. Reliability estimates for the technical, practical, and emancipatory scales of the CII were .64, .74, and .73, respectively.  A correlation analysis revealed that all three scale scores on the CII were statistically and positively related to overall course performance (r = .45, r = .51, and r = .46, respectively). In addition, the scale scores of the CII were significantly and positively correlated with each other with correlations ranging from .66 to .73. A confirmatory factor analysis conducted using AMOS 5.0 software and the maximum likelihood procedure revealed a moderately well-fitted model (chi-square to df=2.0, CFI=.84). Results indicated the CII to be a valid instrument for assessing cognitive interests of nontraditional college students. Results also indicated that there are many ways in which individuals learn, and that the ways of learning often overlap. The study also sought to enhance research on cognitive interests in adult education by assessing a unique population of individuals.

Session 2.3

10:00 A.M. – 10:50 A.M.                           HIGHER EDUCATION                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Kathy K. Franklin, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa

Institutional Effectiveness in the Community College: The Institutional Stakeholders’ Perspective

Gary J. Skolits, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and Susan Graybeal,

Northeast State Technical Community College

This “discussion session” presented recent research on community college faculty and staff understanding and participation related to institutional effectiveness and accountability practices.  Research literature confirms the importance of broad-based faculty/staff support and involvement to make institutional effectiveness and accountability efforts meaningful.  However, few studies have been conducted to address the perspectives and understandings of key internal stakeholders related to: (1) knowledge of institutional research and assessment processes; (2) awareness of employee roles and expectations regarding institutional effectiveness; and (3) behavior of faculty and staff related to institutional research, assessment, and the use of assessment results for continuous improvement.  The setting for this research was a state (public) community college with a favorable track record related to institutional research and effectiveness practices as defined by SACS criteria.  The study began as an external evaluation of institutional effectiveness using a mixed-method approach using: (1) analysis of institutional effectiveness-related documents, (2) institutional data, (3) internal stakeholder interviews, (4) multiple surveys of faculty and staff, and (5) interviews of state governing board representatives.   Several key findings were addressed. For example, while administrative staff and faculty view institutional effectiveness and accountability processes favorably, they tend to differ on their level of understanding of the process and its expectations related to their respective roles.  While faculty generally perceived the institutional effectiveness process favorably, some did not view the processes as particularly relevant to their teaching responsibilities.  The study concluded that institutional effectiveness and accountability efforts are more likely to succeed if they are based upon intrinsic motivators rather than external mandates.  Knowledge of institutional effectiveness procedures and processes are not enough – perceived professional relevance is the key factor, especially for faculty.

IT and the Three-Legged Stool

Jeff Anderson, University of Alabama, Birmingham

Higher education is built on a “three-legged stool” of teaching, research, and service.  While these faculty responsibilities have not changed, how one approaches them has been impacted by the information technology explosion of the past two decades.  Faculty have often been overlooked in research of information technology in education.  This qualitative study concentrated on faculty perceptions of responsibilities and the impact of information technology on teaching, research, and service.  Institutions have typically been indifferent towards the use of information technology, although it has become a staple of enhanced communication among students, faculty, and staff.  This study looked at the perceptions of professors of Educational Leadership at a major southeastern university.

Rising Tuition Lends Credibility to New Reporting Model

Olin L. Adams III and George S. Hall, Auburn University

The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) makes the rules of accounting for public sector entities, including public colleges and universities. In 1999 the GASB set forth new reporting requirements for these organizations, with implementation beginning in 2001. The new reporting model, GASB Statement 34, addressed problems in “fund accounting,” the system of reporting long followed by public sector entities. In fund accounting, transactions are recorded and reports drawn by fund and account group. The system of fund accounting fragments reporting for governmental and not-for-profit organizations and statements prepared under this system appear in stark contrast to those of for-profit businesses whose balance sheets and income statements reflect an entity-wide orientation. The new reporting model was created to make public sector financial reporting easier for the general citizenry to understand. A key feature of the new model includes “government wide” statements of financial position and results of operations. Public colleges and universities are subject to a companion accounting standard, GASB Statement 35, under which the institutions may elect “business type activity” reporting (BTA). In an operating statement for a public institution of higher education prepared on a BTA basis, tuition is highlighted as operating revenue, while state appropriations are considered non-operating revenue. The relative proportion (materiality) of tuition and state appropriations varies by institution, but tuition as a percentage of total revenues has been increasing at most public institutions. While the new approach to reporting was developed and promulgated during a period of economic expansion, the model has been implemented in recession as public colleges and universities have sought to offset lost state appropriations with increased tuition. Although the new reporting model likely represents an improvement by most reckoning, the apparent genius of the GASB in focusing on tuition might owe as much to serendipity as to prescience.

Session 2.4

10:00 A.M. – 10:50 A.M.                           TECHNOLOGY                          Gardenview D

Presider:                                 Lola Aagaard, Morehead State University

Learning How to Transform Knowledge on the Web: Educational Portals

Fethi A. Inan, University of Memphis

This paper focused on the construction of educational portals and discussed what a portal is, what type of content they can include, and how different multimedia data types can be stored and used. Also, it dealt with technical considerations: portal’s content, services, publishing, users, and security issues.

Along with the evolving multimedia capabilities of personal computers, portals have become very useful in processing multimedia data (graphics, video, audio, data, and text) and exchanging data over the Internet (Kuo, & Effelsberg, & Aceves, 1998). The Internet is becoming an information center of the world. Therefore, many governmental, commercial, and educational organizations have begun to carry their paper-based applications on the web. Publishing information on the web is more than posting text directly on the world wide web. Web publishing should also contain video, audio, and images to provide an interactive site. Portals are no longer simply a single access point for information; they are becoming the standard interface for all information activities in an application space. Therefore, portals should contain multimedia elements as much as text documents. Portals were developed to provide a single access point to information, and this is still the core to all portals. The central strategic issue is how to leverage this single access point to the fullest. Personalizing the portal according to learner, customer, supplier, or employee needs is generally one key to an effective portal strategy.  This paper covered how to build an educational portal.  The author divided building a web portal into four parts: (1) Designing content: What should a portal include? (2) Data storage and retrieval: Data types and data structure for various data types; (3) Publishing: How stored multimedia data will be published; and (4) Maintenance: Keeping portal up-to-date and security issues.

AIDEN: A Model for Educational Leaders in the Development of an Implementation

Plan for Innovating K-12 Schools

Barry E. Porter, Dan W. Surry, and Katherine Jackson, University of South Alabama,

and Jennifer W. Porter, Mobile County (AL) Public School Systems

Collectively, the method model that the authors proposed is called “AIDEN.” Each letter of the acronym stands for the steps in the implementation method model, which is structured around Don P. Ely’s eight conditions necessary for the successful implementation of technology in education. These conditions serve as the premise for the authors 11 recommendations for creating a change friendly environment within the school. Briefly, the acronym AIDEN stands for: Analysis, Implementation Profiling, Development, Evaluation, and Network Solidification. The model discussed how educational leaders can analyze an innovation, its potential end-users, the human system in which the change is desired, and the resources that will be needed. The proposed model served as a method for developing a good change plan for educational administrators. The model included an actual profiling instrument that verified end-users implementation profiles. The results of the profiles set the pace for the planning of the actual implementation strategy development. Discussion about evaluating implementation plans (formatively and summatively) was discussed, as well as the importance of establishing an innovation support network. The model is not a guaranteed mechanism for successful implementation in schools; however, it provides a systematic approach for developing an implementation plan that may be of assistance to change agents who have an agenda and need resources to actualize their goals.

How to Decrease the Dropout Rate of Online Students

Fethi A. Inan, University of Memphis

The World Wide Web has become a widely available platform for educational applications. A number of online courses are increasing rapidly, but many of them suffer from high attrition. Research shows that there are two main problems regarding the perspectives of students. First, students do not know online course requirements and this new learning context. Second, most of the online courses are dull with lack of social integration. Two cases were presented to show how to decrease student dropout by introducing learners to the new environment and keeping them actively engaged in this context successfully. These cases show that even small adjustments or modifications make remarkable changes on student decisions to quit or continue.

Session 2.5

10:00 A.M. – 10:50 A.M.                           TEACHER EDUCATION                          Gardenview E

Presider:                                 Susan Santoli, University of South Alabama

Teachers’ Beliefs about the Development of Creativity

Amy F. Claxton and Karen L. Yanowitz, Arkansas State University

Teachers have a major impact on the development of creativity in children. The teacher’s personally held ideas (or implicit theories) concerning the characteristics of creativity can either directly or indirectly impact their interactions with students. This study explored classroom and preservice teachers’ implicit theories of the  development of creativity. Twelve classroom teachers and 20 preservice teachers rated 31 traits (from Runco, Nemiro, & Walberg’s 1998 study examining researchers’ implicit theories of creativity) for their importance to the development of creativity. Traits were rated on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). The traits fell into three general categories:  education/learning, cultural/social factors, and family/early background. Trait ratings were summed in each category and averaged (as there were unequal numbers of traits per category). Paired comparisons revealed that participants rated education and learning (M = 4.3) as significantly more important to the development of creativity than either family (M = 3.9) or cultural/social (M = 3.6), ps < .01). Family background was also rated as significantly more important than cultural/social factors, p < .05. No significant differences were obtained between preservice and classroom teachers on any measures. Additionally, only 20% of the participants reported having taken a class in creativity. Teachers’ personal implicit theories of creativity may be the foundation from which they judge the creative behaviors and products of their students. Perhaps not surprisingly, classroom and preservice teachers believed that educational experiences were the most important aspect in development of creativity. However, these participants differed from creativity researchers’ beliefs that cultural/social factors were more important than family (while our participants believed the reverse).  The differences of opinion concerning the important factors in the development of creativity between the two groups may, in part, explain the disjoint between creativity research and classroom practice.

Things That Concern Teaching Interns: A Qualitative Analysis

Deborah J. Goodwin, University of Arkansas, Little Rock, and Mark McJunkin, Arkansas State University

Richards (1990) states, “Critical reflection refers to an activity or process in which experience is recalled, considered, and evaluated, usually in relation to a broader purpose. It is a response to a past experience and involves conscious recall and examination of the experience as a basis for evaluation and decisionmaking and as a source for planning and action.” Reflection has taken a prominent place in teacher education and practice.  The ninth INTASC principle for teachers states that the teacher is a reflective practitioner who actively seeks out opportunities to grow.   Most teacher education programs, though they have different conceptual and ideological bases, encourage reflective practice (Feiman-Nemser, 1990).  Previous studies of student reflections have identified four types of writing in student reflections: descriptive writing (retelling of events), descriptive reflection, dialogic reflection, and critical reflection (Smith & Hatton 1993). This was a qualitative study presented in the narrative inquiry method that examined the reflective journals (some with daily and some with weekly entries) of 14 teacher interns in their last semester of a baccalaureate-level teacher education program.  The researchers examined the journal entries to identify common concerns among the interns’ comments in order to identify areas that might be addressed in the teacher education process before the interns are placed in the field. The qualitative nature of the study allowed research questions to develop and change as the inquiry process continued; however, initial research questions guiding the study were:  (1) What things caused the student interns concern during the final field experience? (2) How much of the teacher interns’ comments were actual reflections as opposed to diary type or descriptive writing? and (3) How might teacher education programs better prepare students for the final field experience known as student teaching?

Comparison of Question-Response Pattern Differences between Traditional

and Online College Course Formats

Fred H. Groves, Southwest Missouri State University

Instructors regularly seek to increase the amount of appropriate class discussion in their college courses. Under certain circumstances, class discussion can be enhanced by delivery over the Internet. Secondary Curriculum, a graduate course, is such a course. During the spring 2004 semester, data were collected on the number of discussion responses in both a face-to-face meeting and the online sessions. Student responses to questions were higher in the eight online sessions (mean = 177) as compared to the regular session (50 responses). During the single on-campus class, 16 out of 26 students responded to questions, whereas during each of eight online sessions, every student responded. The amount of student-to-student discussion was greater during online sessions, as was evidenced by greater numbers of following responses. For the online meetings, the correlation for student-to-student initial-to-following responses (c = .64) was fairly close to that for initial responses to the instructor responses (c = .75). The number of student responses to following responses from the instructor was much lower (c = .27), showing that the students were responding to each other's comments more than they did to comments from the instructor. Opinion questions elicited more responses than did fact-oriented questions, especially with following responses due to extended discussions between students. The number of non-content responses ranged from 26% for factual, simple response-oriented questions, to 19% for factual, complex response-oriented questions. In regular classes students must speak one at a time, whereas when online they have no such constraints. Students who were self-identified as auditory learners were less enthusiastic about using online compared to self-identified visual learners. Overall, the number of responses generated through online meetings was much greater than that which occurred on campus.

Session 2.6

10:00 A.M.- 10:50 A.M.                          GRIEF SUPPORT: AN EDUCATOR’S DILEMMA

                                                  (Training Session )                         Le Conte

Vincent McGrath, Jack Blendinger, and Linda C. McGrath, Mississippi State University

How does a teacher give solace to a grieving child or adolescent. Based on their experiences of sudden loss, the presenters, who have established grief support groups in their community, explored ways teachers may assist children coping with family trauma, death, separation, or divorce. This discussion combined the current literature on how children and adolescents manage grief, coupled with the personal responses of the participants to their own adult struggles with grief and healing. Proven strategies about how teachers build trust relationships with children were explored for generating healthy coping strategies for children.

Session 2.7

10:00 A.M.- 10:50 A.M.                          DISPLAYS                          Lower Lobby

Learning Style, Strategy Use, Mathematical Word Problem Personalization,

and the Responses of Students with Learning Disabilities

Nicki L. Anzelmo-Skelton, Southeastern Louisiana University

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of learning style, strategy use, and personalization of mathematical word problems on the selection of appropriate operations and the execution of correct computational responses by students with learning disabilities (LD).  Its secondary purpose was to determine if learning style, strategy use, and personalization of mathematical word problems interacted with mathematical word problem achievement levels to effect students with LD’s selection of appropriate operations and execution of correct computational responses. The accessible population for this study was 144 fourth- and fifth-grade students with LD attending 18 elementary schools in a metropolitan school system in a southeastern state.  Seventy-four students with LD randomly selected from the population agreed to participate in the study.  A matched-pairs, pre-test and post-test control group factorial design (2X2X2) was utilized.  The factors were learning style, strategy use, and personalization of mathematical word problems.  Also, three 2x2 factorial designs were employed.  The factors for these designs were learning style, strategy use, personalization, and mathematical word problem achievement level.  The dependent variables were the participants’ selection of appropriate operations and execution of correct computational responses for mathematical word problems.  Data were analyzed using SPSS modules (descriptive and ANCOVA)), and null hypotheses were tested (alpha level p <.05).  The results indicated that: (1) learning style affected the participants’ selection of appropriate operations (F[1, 64] = 13.54, p < .000 – field independent participants had the higher mean score [55.48 vs. 44.52]), and correctional computational responses (F[1,64] = 12.40, p < .000 – field independent participants had the higher mean score [55.42 vs. 44.58]); and (2) learning style, strategy use, personalization, and achievement level did not interact to significantly effect students with LD’s mathematical word problem responses. Results and limitations were discussed, as well as recommendations for future research.

Using Brief Sheets to Increase Math Fluency: A Single Case Design

Rachael S. Isaacs, University of Tennessee,  Knoxville

A behavioral consultation model was used to develop a math intervention for a first-grade student with suspected emotional disturbance.  The basis of the intervention was a combination of repeated practice and the Premack Principle of behavior modification.  By giving the student brief sheets (1/3 piece of notebook paper) with 6-10 problems that were to be completed in order to gain access to a more preferred event (practice reading, playing phoneme bingo, talking with the consultant) the student was reported to complete significantly more problems than the amount she participated in during previous math activities and increase her digits correct per minute, and teacher report data indicate improved behavior during class time.  Approximately four brief sheets were completed per 45 minute session.  Sessions were conducted on a one-on-one basis, four days a week, for a 14-week period with the consultant serving as the tutor.  With an average of 5.2 digits correct per minute (dcpm) on addition problems for numbers 1-10 during baseline measures, the data show an upward trend during intervention with an average of 6.07 digits correct per minute with a range of 1 to 13 dcpm. Using a changing criterion design, the number of problems the student had to complete before receiving the reinforcement was used cautiously as the student was prone to frequent uncontrollable outbursts seeming to stem from inability to complete assigned work.  While the data show that the student made moderate gains in fluency, teacher report indicated that this intervention was more beneficial than the many past attempts to improve the student's math skills.  This intervention offers support for breaking down larger assignments into smaller discrete tasks with frequent reinforcement in order to increase time on task and math fluency. 

Photojournaling: An Innovative Instructional Technique for Today's College Classrooms

Judy Hale McCrary and Patricia K. Lowry, Jacksonville State University

Textbooks are important tools that provide basic information for students.  Understanding how the material in the text relates to their daily lives can be a problem.  By extending learning beyond textbooks, students can broaden their perspectives of instructional techniques.  One such technique is the exploration of historical objects.  This specific example focused on a field trip to a historical cemetery.  Students were encouraged to take photographs as a means of collecting data and to compile the photographs into a photojournal.  A specific field within the social studies curriculum is history.  The key to teaching history is to help students build both knowledge and know-how.  They must not only learn history but also learn to do history.  Neither is sufficient alone in the development of subject matter.  By examining artifacts of historical significance in a cemetery, students record their observations through the use of photographs and construct historical interpretations using a primary source.  Before the field trip, students brainstormed different ideas as to what historical information might be gathered from a cemetery.  Questions formulated were as follows:  (1) During the civil war did women outlive husbands or vice-versa?  (2) How did most men die?  (3) What were their occupations?  (4) What happened to the babies/young children?  (5) What wars did men serve in?  and (6) How can we tell?  On the day of the field trip, students were provided a self-guided map of the cemetery and progressed at their own speed taking photographs along the way.  Students were allowed time after the field trip to compile photographs into a photojournal.

Session 3.1

11:00 A.M. - 11:50 A.M.                          ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

The Relationship Between School Size and Academic Achievement in Mississippi

William M. Welch, Mississippi Department of Education, and Donna Lander

and Darlene Thurston, Jackson State University

Proponents of school consolidation and supporters of small schools both claim that these disparate approaches enhance academic achievement. This study examined the relationship between school size and academic achievement in Mississippi public schools.  The contemporary school size controversy has historical antecedents in the early part of the 20th century when early advocates of school consolidation sought to gain efficiencies of scale.  More recently, state specific studies have identified a positive relationship between small school size and academic achievement.  In this study, results from the 2003 Mississippi Curriculum Test for reading, language arts, and mathematics in grades three and seven served as indicators of academic achievement.  Mississippi Department of Education data were used to identify small schools, enrollments of no more than 400 students, and to identify large schools, enrollments in excess of 600 or more students. A total of 230 small schools and 229 large schools were used in the study. The test scores were matched to the schools, and an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine if a significant relationship existed between school size and academic performance.  Two concomitant variables, free and reduced lunch participation rates and minority enrollment, were used to assure legitimate test results no matter the school size.  Findings revealed no significant relationship between school size and student achievement, as measured by the Mississippi Curriculum Test for language arts, reading, and mathematics, with the exception of grade seven language arts.  Recommendations for further research include replication of the study using the results from the state norm-reference test and including additional variables that may affect student achievement in large or small schools.

Preservice Teacher's Understandings of Effective Literacy Teaching: A Phenomenological Study

Ellen M. Ramp and Renee Falconer, University of Southern Mississippi

This pilot phenomenological qualitative study explored a method for evaluating the success of the literacy curriculum at a teacher education program in the southeastern United States.  Based on literature from the field, effective literacy teaching includes knowledge, beliefs, and dispositions that promote research-based learning in preservice teachers and subsequently, elementary and secondary school students.  Investigations of effective literacy teaching conclude that successful literacy teaching includes motivation, student engagement, high expectations, differentiated instruction, effective classroom management, and higher order questioning.  Research finds that the teacher matters, not the method, and effective instruction improves student reading and writing.  The inquiry employed preservice teacher interviews and responses to a ranking of literacy components to determine whether preservice teachers value effective practices noted in the literature.  The semi-structured interviews also asked the preservice teachers to evaluate the university’s literacy curriculum and make recommendations for improvement.  The respondents were seniors in the program, one semester away from student teaching: one Euro-American male, one African-American female, and two Euro-American females.  The primary researcher did not teach any of the students during the semester of the study, but had past professional experiences with each of the participants.  Using phenomenological methodology and constant comparative method for analysis, several themes emerged.  The preservice teachers seem to value: (1) a personal relationship with children; (2) teacher competence, care, and effectiveness; (3) student motivation and engagement; (4) a print-rich environment, with many diverse literacy activities, student writing, and authentic learning; and  (5) adjusting instruction to meet the individual needs of diverse learners.  The findings mirror results from the literature and have useful implications for other teacher education programs and accrediting institutions as they participate in the process of continuous self-evaluation.

A Value-Added Analysis of Effects of Teachers

Ellen Lusco, University of New Orleans

Since the Coleman Report was published in 1966, researchers have consistently attempted to find evidence as to what factors promote student achievement. A detailed review of the literature was presented to demonstrate the progress in research since the early reports. The present research began by focusing on the research of Coleman and Jencks regarding environmental factors and their influence on student achievement. Following these early presentations, researchers such as Wimpelberg and Edmonds began focusing on school factors. Due to the fact that teachers have a direct impact on students, it is imperative to find whether teachers have an effect on student achievement.  The purpose of the present study was to present a longitudinal analysis of data from one district in Louisiana to provide evidence that teachers have a great impact on student achievement. In order to conduct this study, demographic data and school data were collected for all students in grades kindergarten through three from the 2000-01 school year through the 2003-04 school year. Analysis follows the “ value-added” method developed by William Sanders and used in Tennessee to show the effects of teachers on student achievement.

Session 3.2

11:00 A.M.– 11:50 A.M.                          READING                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Jane Nell Luster, National Center for Special Education Accountability Monitoring

Using a Read-Reread Strategy as a Reading Intervention

Lisa J. Reece, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Reading difficulties are one of the most common problems among today’s students.  Considerable effort has been focused upon the remediation of these problems, and much research has been done investigating procedures designed to ameliorate reading difficulties. This study outlined a remedial effort that was designed to increase reading fluency. The remediation procedure used in the current study involved repeated readings. Specifically, a third-grade student, who showed reading deficits, was instructed to read and reread a 150-word passage a total of four times on a daily basis.  Words per minute and errors per minute were calculated for each day’s first and fourth readings using the methods of Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM).  Based on the CBM results, the student was classified as reading on the frustrational, instructional, or mastery level.  Throughout the study, the student stayed at the same daily reading level until he reached mastery, whereupon he was promoted to the next reading level. Results showed that the student improved a total of three reading levels over a three-week period.  This was the functional equivalent of half a grade. Discussion focused on the need to encourage students with reading skill deficits to engage in active reading behaviors (e.g., repeated readings) in order to remedy these deficits. 

Using Measures of Reading Comprehension Rate to Evaluate the Effects

of a Previewing Strategy on Reading Comprehension

Ashley D. Williams and Christopher H. Skinner, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

The current study examined the effects of a previewing strategy on reading comprehension levels and rates. TELLS is a pre-reading procedure designed to improve comprehension (Idol-Maestas, 1985). TELLS is an acronym that stands for title, examine, look, look, setting.  In the current study, a fifth-grade male was experiencing difficulties with reading comprehension. Two dependent variables were used:  comprehension level (i.e., percent comprehension questions correct) and comprehension rates (i.e., percent correct/time required to read the passage). During baseline, the student read 400 word passages from the Timed Reading in Literature Level 2 (Spargo, 1989) series and answered comprehension questions at the end of each passage. The experimenter recorded how long it took the student to read and calculated comprehension levels and rates. During the intervention phase, the experimenter instructed the student in performing the TELLS procedures before reading and answering the comprehension questions. Although the comprehension level data was influenced by ceiling effects, results showed increases in reading comprehension levels after the intervention was implemented (approximately 20% improvement). Rate of comprehension data showed a more gradual, but larger, increase in reading comprehension scores (comprehension rate improved over 100% by the last session). These data suggest the comprehension rate may be a more sensitive and effective measure for assessing improvements in comprehension. The discussion focused on the need to assess the effectiveness of reading comprehension interventions using reliable and valid measures that can be administered repeatedly over brief periods of time and are sensitive enough to detect small changes in comprehension skills. 

Using a Repeated-Reading Intervention to Increase Reading Fluency

Rebecca G. Gray and Christopher Skinner, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

A repeated-reading intervention was implemented to obviate student trouble in reading. Students reading below grade level are a concern for some teachers. The classroom teacher had tested the student earlier in the school year and found him to be reading on a first-grade level. He was also tested by the consultant using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS). The scores from this test also confirmed what the teacher found. Research has shown that interventions such as paired-reading and assisted-reading can increase fluency, accuracy, and comprehension. In addition, research has shown that by obviating reading problems a child will have a chance to pass subject areas, display higher self-esteem, and have reduced behavior problems. Data were collected using curriculum-based measures. At the start of the intervention, the student was in second grade. These measures determined the number of words the student was able to read correctly per minute. After establishing a baseline using books from the beginning first-grade level, a repeated reading intervention was implemented. The intervention consisted of the student reading a passage one time without practice while data were collected on the number of words correct per minute. Data were collected once again. After the repeated reading intervention was administered for each passage, the student scored at or above the mastery level of 50 words per minute or more on all but one passage. This intervention shows that repeated-reading can increase a students reading fluency that will allow the student to achieve academic success.

Session 3.3

11:00 A.M.– 11:50 A.M.                          HIGHER EDUCATION                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Kathy K. Franklin, University of Alabama

A Comparison of Leading Issues in Higher Education Finance, 1998-99 and 2003-04

Olin L. Adams III and Toni L. Edwards, Auburn University

This paper explored the leading issues in the finance of higher education as perceived by chief financial officers (CFOs) in four-year colleges and universities at two points in time, 1998-99 and 2003-04. Tuition at colleges and universities is rising rapidly at a rate substantially higher than inflation. The tuition at four-year public institutions averaged 14% more for the 2003-04 academic year than the prior year, while tuition at four-year colleges increased 6% in the same comparison period (Farelle, 2003). Public institutions have raised tuition largely in response to reduced state appropriations. Most institutions also have struggled with large increases in health care costs. The investigators surveyed a national sample of CFOs in four-year colleges and universities at two points in time, 1998-99 and 2003-04. As part of the survey, each CFO was asked to identify the three most important issues in the finance of higher education for the next five years. A total of 218 CFOs responded in 1998-99, while 142 have responded in 2003-04. Additional data are expected to be collected in a follow-up contact by electronic mail. In 1998-99 respondent CFOs identified the following as leading issues, with respective frequencies: technology, 46%; tuition, 35%; tuition discounting, 26%; physical plant, 23%. By contrast, respondent CFOs in 2003-04 cited the following issues as most important, with respective frequencies: tuition, 47%; declining public support, 37%; cost control, 30%. With year 2000 concerns apparently assuaged, technology was named by only 16% of the respondents. The large increases in tuition have captured public and Congressional attention. Colleges and universities also have engaged in aggressive fund raising but confront an imperative for the analysis, control, and reduction of costs.

Integrating Web-Enhanced Instruction with Traditional Strategies as an Experiential Approach to Teaching

Linda Wilson-Jones, Fayetteville State University, and Tom Thompson, University of North Carolina

An experimental teaching design was implemented teaching design on students enrolled in a Foundations of Education and Human Growth and Development course at FSU during fall 2003.  The students were randomly divided into two groups.  One group was instructed using traditional classroom strategies, with limited online assignments.  The treatment group was taught using web-enhanced instructional strategies using Blackboard as a course management tool to deliver lectures and exams.   Qualitative and quantitative results revealed that when Blackboard was used as an instructional method, students scored at least 10 points higher than students who were taught using traditional instructional strategies.  Further, survey results indicated that students who received over half of their instruction via technological course management systems had significantly higher peer-to-peer contact, higher ratio of teacher-student interaction, and appeared more involved in classroom discussions. Interestingly, both classes demonstrated an understanding of the main course competencies by the end of the semester.

Evaluation of New Teachers for New Students Program -- An ESL Teacher Certification Program

Gypsy Abbott, Julia Austin, Lyn Froning, Richard Littleton,

and Afi Wiggins, University of Alabama, Birmingham

The number of non-native English language learners (ELLs) in the state of Alabama has increased 200% in the last five years. Clearly, the first step in meeting the needs of ELLs is to ensure changes in teaching practices. New Teachers for New Students was funded by the U.S. Department of Education Office of English Language Acquisition to provide add-on ESL teacher certification at the master’s level to Alabama teachers. The program includes both on-campus and distance education instruction. Two cohorts of teachers have participated in the program, a total of 70 teachers. Finding the best methods to measure changes in teaching practices, the central goal of the project, is a dilemma facing the evaluation community.  Documenting changes in teaching practices in this NTNS project was accomplished by comparison of pre- and post-program videos using 30-minute class lessons. The guidelines for videotaping lessons were identical to the procedures prescribed by the National Teaching Board (2003). Since instruction in NTNS is based on the theoretical model of Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) developed by Ecchevaria, Vogt, and Short (2002), a rubric developed by these authors was used to assess changes in teaching practice. The SIOP consists of 30 items measuring six categories of instruction (preparation, instruction, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, and review/assessment). Evidence of content validity of the rubric is provided in that the various components of the competencies on the observation scale directly relate to those in the SIOP curriculum model.  Evidence of both intra-observer and inter-observer reliability was established at an acceptable level  (a minimum of 70 for each scale). Issues related to establishing reliability were described. The areas in teaching practice that have reflected greatest changes were lesson preparation/delivery and teaching strategies congruent “ESL Best Practices.” Implications of evaluation findings were discussed.

The Effects of Music Participation in High School and Subsequent Collegiate

Developmental Studies Enrollment

Patrick N. Kariuki, Milligan College

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music participation in high school on subsequent collegiate developmental studies enrollment.  The sample consisted of 37 males and 37 females randomly selected from colleges in the northeast Tennessee and southwest Virginia region with a total population of 4,200 students.  The sample was further divided into experimental and control groups.  The experimental group consisted of all the students required to enroll in any developmental studies classes, whereas the control group consisted of all the students not required to enroll in any developmental classes.  Data were collected using a questionnaire designed to solicit information pertaining to the participant’s music experience prior to college.  Data were analyzed using t-test for independent means and t-test for paired means.  The results indicated a significant difference between music participation and developmental studies enrollment.  Similarly, there was a significant difference between years of music participation and number of courses enrolled in developmental studies.

Session 3.4

11:00 A.M.– 11:50 A.M.                          TECHNOLOGY                          Gardenview D

Presider:                                 Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

Achievement Scores from Online and Face-to-Face Instructional Designs

JoAnna Dickey, Eastern Kentucky University

This study provided information about the achievement outcomes of three groups of students taking the same graduate advanced program core course during the same semester.  Each course design included a degree of blend of online learning and face-to-face interaction that would best accommodate each of student group’s online learning experience and content area expertise.  All three groups were required to complete four different types of course assignments that included:  chapter quizzes, chapter challenges (essay questions), article reports, and a comprehensive course project.  The pre- and post-tests in this study measured achievement in the acquisition of content knowledge as presented in the course quizzes.   Student groups included candidates in an advanced degree in education (Group R), an advanced degree in school psychology (Group P), and a graduate degree in initial teacher certification (Group M).  Pre- and post-test analyses indicated that all three groups gained significantly higher content area knowledge scores.  Groups R and P were required to take these quizzes online after studying each chapter.  Group M was required to answer the same questions but were given these questions as a mid-term and final in a face-to-face environment.  When comparing post-test scores between groups, Group M’s achievement scores were significantly higher than the other two groups.  An explanation was provided of how and why each instructional design differed, as well as an explanation about how these treatments may have influenced test scores.

Making Technology Teacher-Friendly: Designing a Master Technology Teacher Program

Vivian H. Wright, University of Alabama

With increased emphasis on technology integration from preservice to inservice teacher use, the University of Alabama’s Department of Secondary Curriculum, Teaching, and Learning (SCTL) developed a program, Master Technology Teachers (MTT) in 2000.  The professional development program was developed to encourage technology integration via partnerships between the content faculty and inservice teachers and to provide preservice teachers with technology learning experiences.  Having completed the fourth year of MTT, this presentation offered a glimpse into the program’s success and discussed areas of needed change.  Research has established that teachers often teach as they were taught (Bennett, 1991).  Therefore, teacher educators must not only model technology practices, they must ensure that preservice teachers are provided with opportunities to observe and to participate in technology practices in their clinical experiences.  Bielefeldt (2001) noted the importance of professional development for successful technology integration that transfers into today’s classrooms. The MTT partnership provided mentoring, professional development, and a climate in which preservice teachers could learn effective technology teaching methods.  Evaluative data were collected each year, and methods included reflective journals, teacher surveys, and interviews with MTT partners. The authors were specifically interested to see if the new skills obtained in the MTT program were being used in the classroom and how the teachers were building upon those skills.  Results over the past four years consistently demonstrated the inservice teachers’ enthusiasm and thankfulness for being included in the program.  While the MTTs used skills learned in the professional development seminars, many were not consistently building upon those skills.  On the other hand, some MTTs became the “go to” technology person at their schools.  Content faculty changed over the four years and that change contributed to varying levels of support with the preservice teacher’s role in the partnership, an area definitely needing improvement and focus in upcoming years. 

Session 3.5

11:00 A.M.– 11:50 A.M.                          MINORITY RECRUITING                          Gardenview E

Presider:                                 John R. Petry, University of Memphis

Teacher Improvement or Empowerment?  Action Research in an NCLB Grant

Rosalind R. Gann, East Tennessee State University

The presentation outlined what occurred in a 2003-4 NLCB ESL grant where the graduate-level teacher improvement candidates were required to undertake action research as part of a course designed to help them grow in their ability to work with ESL students in reading.  While the graduate students found the expectation initially intimidating, it helped them to reframe many of the questions they had been asking about their students' reading problems.  A few students produced work that was presented at this conference.  However, nearly a third of the graduate students withdrew from the course rather than complete the project.

Growing Teachers: The Minority Future Teacher Scholars Program

Michael C. Ross and Linda Akanbi, Kennesaw State University

The purpose of the review of this program was to highlight a collaborative and innovative approach in addressing the minority teacher shortage in Georgia.  The Minority Future Teachers Scholars Program is based on a grant funding and the collaborative efforts of Kennesaw State University faculty.  This program identified highly qualified junior- and senior-level high school students who have expressed an interest in a career in teaching and gave them the opportunity to attend a 25-day teacher induction academy where they receive instruction comparable to the university’s introduction to education course.  In addition to receiving educational and academic training, the participating students are also given the opportunity to work as teacher practitioners serving as academic and enrichment tutors for a group of 30 public education students ranging from 2nd grade to 5th grade.  Under the supervision of university faculty members, the participating teacher cadets provide academic enrichment programs in the areas of math, science, language arts, social sciences, and health and fitness.  It is anticipated long-term that outcomes of this program include the programming serving as a means of identifying and recruiting talented minority students into the teaching field.  Other immediate outcomes consist of the academic training the teacher cadets receive and the tutorial and enrichment services provided to the elementary students.

Non-Minority Preservice Teacher Perceptions Regarding Teaching in Urban School Systems

Michael C. Ross, Kennesaw State University, and Daphne Hubbard, University of South Alabama

The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of non-minority preservice teachers in regard to teaching in minority urban school systems.  The teacher shortage crisis has become a national issue.  However, the effects of this shortage are perhaps most severe in predominantly minority urban school systems.  When considering the many obstacles urban school systems commonly face, such as low academic achievement, poor facilities, limited equipment, high dropout rates, inadequate funding, and school violence, the problem of finding highly qualified teachers is a problem most urban school systems would rather do without.  Yet, urban school systems systematically lose thousands of new teacher graduates each year due to the perceptions many novice teachers have regarding urban school systems.  The participants for this study consisted of junior- and senior-level preservice teachers attending teacher education universities in the southeastern section of the United States.  The colleges/universities participating in this study were identified as predominantly white institutions based on their current student population being 80% or more white.  The participants where required to complete a 30-item Likert-type survey designed to measure their perceptions of teaching in minority urban school systems when considering factors such as academics, funding, and classroom management.  The participants completed the survey anonymously via the Internet, providing only the name of their educational institution. The findings of this study strongly suggested that non-minority preservice teachers have definite perceptions in regard to teaching in minority urban school systems.  Although the findings of this study cannot be generalized to all non-minority preservice teachers, the study provided valuable insight on how minority urban school systems can help to improve the perceptions of non-minority preservice teachers and perhaps increase the recruitment of this large future teacher source.

Evaluation of Turkish Distance Education

Fethi Inan, University of Memphis

This paper presented an historical evaluation of Turkish distance education. After presenting evaluation of distance education, the expectations, prediction, and some thesis about the future of the distance education in Turkey was presented. Distance education has been employed in the Turkish Education System during three prominent periods: 1927-1955, 1956-1981 and after 1980s. These periods were characterized by the following issues: intensive debate on distance education as a concept, employment of distance education at secondary and higher education levels, system-shut down, foundation of Council for Higher Education (CHE), and re-employment of distance education in higher education and later in secondary education (Agaoglu, Imer, & Kurubacak, 2002). In recent years, the application of the web-based instruction and training increasing considerably. Some universities started to employ distance education technologies to support conventional teaching. For example, Middle East Technical University (METU) started an experimental distance education course via the Internet in 1997.  In the following years, METU has been experiencing an Internet Based Distance Learning certificate programs and Online M.S. degree program in Informatics.

Session 3.6

11:00 A.M.– 11:50 A.M.        EFFECTS OF AN INTEGRATIVE, LEARNING THEORY-BASED

                                                   DISCIPLINE PROGRAM ON CHILDREN'S CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR:

                                                  A NEW APPROACH TOWARD CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

                                                  (Training Session )                         Le Conte

Peter A. Ross, Mercer University School of Education

This study investigated classroom behavior management from an integrative, multi-disciplinary approach.  This longitudinal study is integrating core principals of learning theory, child development, social skills training, and motivation theory to create a powerful, student-driven management program.   Five classrooms were used for the study with grades ranging between second through sixth.  Two basic social skills were taught by each teacher according to direct instruction principles.  Throughout the day, teachers are systematically pointing out positive social skills when demonstrated by students.   Secondarily, students were asked to recognize these behaviors among each other.  Discipline referral rates, time on task, teacher time for instruction, and positive social outcomes [both in class and school-wide] were tracked as measures.  Based on the piloted program and results thus far, results were impressive for all measures. 

12:00 P.M. – 1:30 P.M.                           LUNCH – KEYNOTE ADDRESS                          Tennessee Ballroom 1 & 2

Session 4.1

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Jimmy Lindsey, Southern University, Baton Rouge

School Climate and Whole-School Morning Meeting

Jean D. Krieger, Woodlake Elementary School

Many factors are involved in improving student achievement.  Urban (1999) reported that students must experience a positive and supportive school climate in order to achieve their best.  An investigation was conducted in one primary public school delineating the stakeholders’ beliefs about their school climate.  The questions are “How do the stakeholders of P.S. Southeast Elementary view the school climate?” and “How does Morning Meeting influence the school climate?” Stakeholders, including veteran and novice teachers, administrators, parents, students, and community members, were interviewed about their beliefs concerning the school climate. Questions concerning the whole school morning meeting were included in this study.  The interviews were transcribed, and information was compiled to find patterns in their stated beliefs.  The findings are outlined in the report. School climate is a factor mentioned frequently when discussing school reform and improved student achievement.  This study outlined the processes involved with establishing daily, whole-school morning meeting, and the stakeholders’ beliefs about this tradition.

Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Motivation in Learning

Srilata Bhattacharyya, New York Institute of Technology, New York

Teacher preparation programs in all countries are today geared toward developing the students’ motivation and skill to learn. Research indicates that mainly American researchers, contextually related to the American sample, developed the conceptual framework regarding motivational factors that affect learning. Motivation has therefore been reviewed from a western philosophical outlook. The purpose of the study was to investigate the motivational factors that predict academic achievement in a cross-cultural context, and to find the common ground in how students from India, an ancient, yet paradoxically, younger nation, compared with students from the United States. The prediction of academic achievement by the components of motivational orientation in two separate cultural environments, India and the United States, was investigated in this study. The sample was comprised of 143 Indian preservice college students from Bombay, India, and 200 American preservice college students from a large southern university in the United States. Using the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, this study specifically examined the effect of motivational orientation measured by the constructs goal orientation, task value, expectancy components of self-efficacy, and the affective component of test anxiety. Demographic factors of concern were parental education and socioeconomic status measured by income, age, and gender of the students and their religious affiliations in India, and ethnicity in the U.S. Academic achievement was measured by grades. Multiple regression results indicated intrinsic goal orientation and self-efficacy were predictive factors in explaining academic achievement in American students, while in the Indian students, academic achievement was predicted by self-efficacy. The emergence of the expectancy component of self-efficacy in both cultures as a major predictor of academic achievement is indicative of the fact that this construct is universal across cultures. The findings were discussed within a cross-cultural frame of reference, and ways to enhance student learning were implied.

Methods of Middle Grade ESL Students In Reading

Kristen Clary, Lincoln Elementary School, and Rosalind Gann, East Tennessee State University

These two projects, undertaken as action research with third- and fourth-grade students, demonstrated how fairly minor interventions by a classroom teacher can result in fairly dramatic improvement.  The first project, which focused on vocabulary improvement in content areas, utilized vocabulary notebooks.  The second, which aimed to improve fluency in reading, worked with a take-home bookbag project and involved the child's mother.  Both students improved substantially.

Session 4.2

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           COLLEGE STUDENTS                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Gary J. Skolits, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Measuring the Predictive Ability of a Self-efficacy Instrument for College Non-Majors

Learning in Active Versus Passive Lecture Environments

Sandra L. Johnson, Middle Tennessee State University

Social cognitive theory asserts that self-efficacy, the beliefs in one's own ability to engage in or accomplish a task, and confidence affect motivation and persistence at new tasks (Bandura, 1996). For example, a student's belief in her/his ability to learn biology determines time and effort spent on biology-learning tasks (Pajares, 1996). Instruments measuring general self-efficacy are thought to have less predictive ability than those examining confidence relevant to specific tasks. The author tested the hypotheses that:  (1) student reported self-efficacy predicts achievement in nonmajors biology, and (2) students' confidence in their ability to use biology in their lives increases when they engage in active learning. Three non-majors biology lecture classes (N=211) at a moderate sized southern university participated in this study in spring 2004. The multidimensional Biology Self-Efficacy Scale (BSES; Baldwin et al., 1999) served as pre- and posttest for the study. All lectures included several mini-lectures. In the active-lecture, mini-lectures were followed by multiple-choice questions. Taking time to answer questions gave students an opportunity to use the information imparted in lecture and allowed the author to correct misconceptions and help students work through distracters to find the best answer. Passive mini-lectures flowed together, although the correct information from the active-learn questions was presented at the same place in the lecture. Self-efficacy was not a significant predictor of final grade, contributing only about 3% to the grade. Active learning did not significantly improve total efficacy scores. However, two dimensions of self-efficacy significantly increased among active learners (methods, P = 0.02; analysis, P = 0.009). This project does not support the proposition that self-efficacy predicts biology achievement. However, achievement involves a broad spectrum of complex behaviors. Analysis of the behaviors that successfully lead to biological literacy may clarify the relationship between self-efficacy and achievement.

College Students' Study Habits and Test Performance

Lola Aagaard and Ronald Skidmore, Morehead State University

A common assumption is that studying for tests affects student achievement in a college course, yet the literature shows mixed results in many areas related to study strategies.  Study procrastination (delaying studying until right before the test) does not show consistent adverse effects, for instance.  Active engagement with course materials, such as note-taking while reading a textbook chapter, is not consistently better than a passive rereading of the same content.  The current study investigated students' study habits and their relationship to test scores in an undergraduate course.  Subjects were 149 undergraduate students enrolled in a course required for admission to the teacher education program at a regional state university.  Students were given a short instructor-developed study habits survey in conjunction with each of five multiple-choice tests.  The majority of students (70% or more) did most of their preparation (about two hours worth) right before the test.  Ninety percent or more of the students read over the notes they took in class, but half or fewer read the assigned textbook chapters.  One third or fewer of the students worked through the textbook's accompanying study guide or used mnemonics as a study strategy.  Lesser-used strategies included studying with someone else (<25%), making flashcards (<15%), and writing sample test questions (<5%).  A series of t-tests showed significantly higher test performance for students doing the study guide and for those using mnemonics as a study strategy.  Test scores showed no significant differences for any other study habits, including study procrastination and textbook use.  These results have some implications for the overt instruction of students in the use of mnemonics.  They also raise questions about the role of the textbook in college classes.

Emotional Intelligence of College Undergraduates

Martha Tapia, Berry College, and George E. Marsh II, University of Alabama

Salovey and Mayer define emotional intelligence as the ability to monitor one’s emotions, the emotions of others, and to differentiate among them, and it involves the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate emotions reflectively to promote emotional and intellectual growth.  This definition connects intelligence and emotion because it combines the ideas that emotion makes thinking more intelligent and that one thinks intelligently about emotions. From this point of view, a person with these abilities is considered a well-adjusted and emotionally skilled person; the lack of these abilities renders a person socially and emotionally handicapped.  The Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EII) was developed to measure emotional intelligence.  The EII was based on the model of Salovey and Mayer.  The initial pool of items was submitted to an exploratory factor analyses, and four factors were identified: empathy, utilization of feelings, handling relationships, and self-control.  This study examined gender differences in emotional intelligence of undergraduate students. The instrument was administered to students at a large state university.  The subjects of the study were 153 college students. Fifty-three of the subjects were male and 78 female.  Data were analyzed using analysis of variance with four factors of emotional intelligence (empathy, utilization of feelings, handling relationships, and self-control) as dependent variables and gender as the independent variable.  Significant differences were found on three of the four factors.  Males scored significantly higher than females in empathy, handling relationships, and self-control.  These results suggest that gender differences in emotional intelligence were reflected in this sample.

 “I Like the Sound of Words…the Way They Fit in My Mouth”: Urban Appalachian Professional Storytellers’ Narratives

Christina Walton, University of Cincinnati

This IRB-approved narrative inquiry is an in-progress study investigating the life histories of professional storytellers who are of Appalachian descent and living in an urban metropolitan city located in the midwest. Each Appalachian storyteller-participant encountered is interviewed then observed during performances to determine what influenced their development as storytellers and informs the content of their oral narratives respectively. In the literature review, the 13 studies all used an in-depth interview format for adult narratives focused on story reconstruction, world view in story retellings, and cultural preservation. Narrative theory demonstrates that narratives are symbolic tools that mediate community and individual shared experiences (Ahonen, 2001; Obermiller, 1996; Wertsch, 1998 & Vygotsky, 1978). A comparative study of change design and narrative theory are used with a mixed method sequential exploratory design to allow integration of qualitative and quantitative data collection. This study uses convenience and snowball referral for the 20+ professional Appalachian storytellers. Two to three in-depth interviews concern personal matters, lived experience, values, decisions, ideology, cultural knowledge, and stories to examine the extent to which storytellers interpret their past through the lens of the story or narrative and serves to identify the factors that may influence their social, cultural, and historical interpretations. Storytellers introduce a story with a story so two concurrent stories unfold, the story with events, characters, setting, and content of the narrative, while the discourse involves the telling, presentation, expression and narration of the story. One storyteller expressed her love of the story, “I’ve always liked the sound of words. I like the way they fit in my mouth (hearty laugh),” and to “experiment with words, play with words.” These storytellers use dulcimer, banjo, guitar, and fiddle to weave both story and song to make the past and present comprehensible to a community and educate through narratives.

Session 4.3

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           LANGUAGE                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Jack J. Klotz, University of Central Arkansas

The Effects of Story Reading and Story Telling on the Oral Language Development of Young Children

Matthew P. Gallets, Chara Watson, Joseph Sobol, and Rebecca Isbell, East Tennessee State University

The purpose of this study was to determine how storytelling and story reading influence the language development and story comprehension of young children from five to eight years of age.  During the study, two groups of children heard the same 24 stories. Group A heard the stories told, and group B had the same stories read to them from a book.  The language pre- and post-samples were elicited from the participants by asking them to retell one of the stories that they heard.  The language samples were analyzed using measures of language complexity and story comprehension. Both storytelling and story reading were found to produce positive gains in oral language.  Differences between the two groups indicated that children who heard the stories told to them demonstrated improved story comprehension in their retelling, while children in the story-reading group showed greater improvement in the area of language complexity.

ESL Learning and the Study of Grammar

Gloria Morrissey and Barbara N. Young, Middle Tennessee State University

The fashions in second language teaching have been in a constant state of flux and evolution over the last 50 years. The proliferation of theories has come about as a result of scientific investigations designed to validate Second Language Acquisition as a discrete science in its own right. The theories applied to SLA themselves come from overarching theories of education based on behaviorist, cognitive, social, communicative, constructivist, and brain-based approaches to teaching. This multiplicity of theory, research, and methodology has led to varied and often contradictory ideas about teaching a second language. In particular, the subject of grammar and its place in SLA has undergone the effects of the winds of change in the field. This presentation of research focused on the continuing importance of grammar in teaching with reference to the changes in status accorded to grammar over the past 50 years and the current resurgence of interest in returning to grammar as an important component in the classroom. In addition, the importance of research in making decisions about when and how to teach grammar was explored.

Session 4.4

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           RESEARCH METHODS                          Gardenview D

Presider:                                 Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

The Survey: Alive and Well?

Cindy S. Jacobs, University of North Florida

Developing a good research project, to a significant degree, rests squarely on well-designed data collection.  Attitudinal surveys have long been employed as a technique to gather social science data.  A comprehensive review of the literature yields evidence that good survey instrumentation is well-constructed,

well-written, and well-executed; yet still, many researchers report low-response rates.  Further, even when a survey is well-written and response rates are relatively high, survey respondents frequently omit or overlook items within the survey, and, due to the effects of socially desirable responses, it is frequently unclear the degree to which data can be assumed to represent realistic perceptions.  The purpose of the present paper was to discuss the issues surrounding development of survey instrumentation and how researchers can promote higher response rates and ensure a more comprehensive data collection process. Specifically, four major ways to promote higher response rates were discussed, and, where appropriate, examples and data were used to make the discussion concrete.  First, suggestions for writing survey items were discussed, with emphases placed on the principle of parsimony and the careful wording of items and directions.  Next, a variety of methods for collecting survey data (e.g., mail, e-mail, Internet, telephone, face-to-face) was explored, and procedures for increasing response rates within each of these methods were discussed.  Third, the controversial practice of offering tangible rewards to participants to increase response rates was discussed.  Finally, various methods for handling missing data were discussed, with data output comparisons made across the various methods.

A Typology of Mixed Methods Research Designs

Nancy L. Leech, University of Colorado, Denver, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, University of South Florida

The mixed methods paradigm is still in its adolescence, and, thus, is still relatively unknown and confusing to many researchers. In general, mixed methods research represents research that involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or in a series of studies that investigate the same underlying phenomenon. Over the last several years, a plethora of research designs have been developed. However, the number of designs that currently prevail leaves the doctoral student, the beginning researcher, and even the experienced researcher who is new to the field of mixed methods research with the challenge of selecting optimal mixed methods designs. A content analysis of the various available mixed research designs has led us to conceptualize that these designs can be represented as a function of the following three dimensions: (1) level of mixing (partially mixed vs. fully mixed), (2) time orientation (concurrent vs. sequential), and (3) emphasis of approaches (equal status vs. dominant status).  This paper presented a three-dimensional typology of mixed methods designs that represents an attempt to rise to the challenge of creating an integrated typology of mixed methods designs. The typology presented here describes eight types of mixed research designs:  (1) partially mixed concurrent equal status designs, (2) partially mixed concurrent dominant status designs, (3) partially mixed sequential equal status designs, (4) partially mixed sequential dominant status designs; (5) fully mixed concurrent equal status designs, (6) fully mixed concurrent dominant status designs, (7) fully mixed sequential equal status designs, and (8) fully mixed sequential equal status designs. An example for each design was included, as well as a notation system that fits the eight-design framework.

Generalizability, Replicability, and External Validity: Promoting Understanding

and Addressing Common Misconceptions

Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

When educational researchers use correlational statistical techniques for obtaining scientific results, they should be appropriately concerned with the external validity (i.e., the generalizability) of obtained results with respect to a broader population of interest.  Because there is always the possibility that results of such analyses will capitalize upon chance, it is desirable that researchers attempt to replicate research findings across various samples selected from a given population. Replication is enhanced when samples are selected from the population of interest at random; however, when randomness is not feasible, the sample selected via whatever means should at least be representative of the population of interest. Replication is frequently given lip service, but rarely do researchers take careful precautions to truly replicate important studies within their areas of endeavor.  Further, it is clear that some researchers simply do not clearly understand the replication or the broader concept of result generalizability.  The present paper provided a background to generalizability as it has been perceived over time and proffers distinctions between generalizability and several other concepts important to educational research (e.g., external validity, replication). Following a review of terminology used in the literature on research generalizability, a variety of issues relative to the practice of replication follows, including:  (1) the importance of sampling, (2) the distinction between generalizing to populations as opposed to across populations, (3) the place of cross-validation studies in replication research, and (4) the place of meta-analytic studies in replication research.  Finally, several common misconceptions relative to the practice of replication were addressed, including the misconception that statistical significance testing informs the researcher as to the replicability of results, the misconception that all convenience samples are created equal, and the misconception that controls for internal validity necessarily result in threats to external validity, and vice-versa.

Session 4.5

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           SCHOOLS                          Gardenview E

Presider:                                 Shelly L. Albritton, University of Central Arkansas

Parents' Ratings Regarding Goals of Gifted Programs

Stephani M. Choate and Sherry K. Bain, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

The purpose of this research was to examine popular views of appropriate goals for gifted programs in the schools, according to parents of children identified as gifted.  A group of approximately 130 parents with at least one child identified as gifted was surveyed about their goals for gifted education.  Nine schools were represented.  Six were elementary schools and three were middle schools.  The questionnaire listed five goals, as well as an “other” option that the parents could fill in.  The goals included increased creativity, social skills, enrichment, acceleration, higher order thinking, and self-esteem.  The results were divided according to elementary school or middle school.  Both groups ranked higher order thinking as the most important goal for gifted education and creativity as third in importance.  Parents of students in elementary school ranked acceleration second and enrichment fourth in importance.  The elementary parents gave the fifth and sixth rankings to self-esteem and “other,” consecutively.  The parents of students in middle school gave the rank of second to enrichment and fourth to acceleration.  Self-esteem was ranked fifth.  This group of parents did not choose the category of “other.”  Both sets of parents gave social skills the lowest ranking.  According to this research, the parents of children identified as gifted place a strong emphasis on higher order thinking and creativity as important goals for gifted education programs.  Fascinatingly, parents ranked social skills as the least important goal for these programs.  This is an intriguing result considering the documented perceptions of social relationships in children identified as gifted.

Conflict Resolution Skills Training in Elementary School

Cenovia Burnes, Mississippi State University

This study was conducted to train students and evaluated a curriculum of nonviolent living for fourth-grade students.  The Social Learning Theory emphasized the “proactive” aspect of aggression, while other research models emphasized the “reactive” aspect. Several research studies show that early classroom behavior and early antisocial behaviors are predictors of later violence or misconduct.  The most comprehensive review of the effectiveness of violence-prevention programs for youth was done by the Carnegie Corporation, a total of 72 participants, ranging from eight to 10 years of age at an inner-city elementary school.  Analyzing whether perceptions were impacted in research question one, the pretest mean score (M=59.05) and the posttest mean score (M=65.40) indicated an increasing difference.  When the mean scores were compared, the results indicated the impact perceptions of aggressive behaviors among fourth graders were not statistically significant, F(2,57)= 1.821,p>.05.  The mean difference was 3.15, which indicated no significant difference.  The second research question focused on the effectiveness of the Peace-Able-Place program by increased awareness of alternative conflict resolution skills among fourth graders.  The pretest reported the lower of the two mean scores (M=59.05).  The posttest reports the highest mean score (M=65.40).  A three-part questionnaire of 37 items taken from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey was administered as a pre- and posttest that was designed to measure interpersonal aggression, conflict resolution skills, and knowledge.  The questionnaire was administered during regular counseling class.  An analysis of covariance was used to determine if significant differences exist between the pre- and post-scores.  There were two important implications within this study.  First, the conflict resolution skills taught from the curriculum had an impact on the students' perception of aggressive behavior.  In addition, results confirmed once again that violence is associated with multiple factors.  Therefore, the Peace-Able Place curriculum is an effective violence prevention program.

Conflict Resolution Education: Preparing Preservice Educators to Work Collaboratively

Janetta L. Bradley, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga

Although conflict is a natural part of life and a common occurrence in the workplace, little preparation time is focused on assisting preservice educators to understand and manage conflict situations with colleagues, parents, and administrators. Limited research on student conflict and mediation exists, but little that addresses adult conflicts. This presentation provided background information for analysis and steps toward resolution of everyday conflicts. Data from two research projects with preservice educators provided support for including instruction in conflict skills into teacher education programs. Session attendees had opportunities to review, discuss, and practice outcomes from actual conflict situations in this theory-based approach to principled alternative dispute resolution method.

The Perceived Effectiveness of In-School-Suspension vs. Out-Of-School Suspension

Cenovia Burnes, Mississippi State University

The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the perceived effectiveness of procedures of removing disruptive students from the classroom of schools with in-school-suspension  (ISS) to schools with out-of-school (OSS) suspension.  Research reports ISS as an alternative form of discipline.  Among the other research findings there were identified models of ISS and recommendations for an effective discipline program.  The samples of this study were randomly sampled.  All participants were certified faculty members.  A questionnaire was conducted, and all subjects were treated equally.  Data were obtained by utilizing a questionnaire that was designed to measure teacher perception of their school's discipline program and the perceived effectiveness of the procedures utilized for handling or removing disruptive students from the classroom.  Data were analyzed using the Independent t-test to compare means for the two groups, which was a school with ISS and a school without ISS.  The .05 was used for the level of significance to support the hypothesis.  According to the data, there was not a significant difference between being effective and not effective.  The difference of perceived effectiveness was not statistically significant, t value = .598, p>.05. There was a mean of 4.33 for the discipline program being perceived as just getting by 4.00 for the discipline program being perceived as very effective.  The mean difference was .33, which indicated no significant difference, with a standard deviation of SD = .52.  According to the data, 55% of the teachers at the school with OSS perceived their discipline program to be less effective. The school with ISS indicated 70% of the teachers perceived their program to be effective. Other studies have shown significant differences and more effectiveness. However, the limitations within this study could cause discrepancy.  It is thought that more research and a continuation of this study should be done to develop a more reliable analysis of this topic.

Session 4.6

2:00 P.M. – 2:50 P.M.                           CLINICAL SUPERVISION (Symposium)                          Le Conte

Organizer:                             Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

Literature Reviews of Current Issues in Clinical Supervision

Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

Graduate students (educational administration) discussed their reviews of literature on clinical supervision topics: Evaluation vs. Supervision, Peer Observations, Supervisory Role of Mentors, Teacher Receptivity of the Clinical Supervision Model, Role of Staff Development, Designing Observation Instruments; Teacher Retention, and Staff Involvement in a School-wide Supervision Plan.

Peer Observations' Role in Clinical Supervision

David Gibson and Wanda Stringer, University of Southern Mississippi

Based on a review of relevant literature, this paper presented the role of peer observation in the clinical supervision model. The presentation included aspects such as when peer coaching is appropriate, key studies investigating the positive and negative impact of peer coaching, selection of coaches, and the need for training. Copies of the paper and included bibliographic information were provided.

Teacher Evaluation vs. Clinical Supervision

Travis Edwards, Sonja Robertson, David Freeman, and Thelma J. Roberson, University of Southern Mississippi

Based on a review of relevant literature, this paper presented key differences and similarities between teacher evaluation and the clinical supervision model. Copies of the paper and included bibliographic information were provided.

Session 5.1

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Lynn Howerton, Arkansas State University

Effects of Instructional Strategies on Seventh-Grade Science Achievement as Perceived by Kentucky Students

Larry S. Ennis, Lindsey Wilson College

The Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990 brought about systemic transformations at all levels of the state P-12 educational system. While the reform has generally been accepted as successful at the elementary and secondary levels, improvements in the state’s middle schools have been negligible, particularly in science. This study focused on possible influence on student seventh-grade science achievement from students’ perceptions of teachers’ instructional strategies, student self-efficacy, and demographic factors. Based upon secondary accountability data from the Kentucky Department of Education, the analysis included 10 research questions at two levels of research: individual student scores, and the composite school percentage change over Accountability Cycle.  Simultaneous and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to investigate possible relationships. Consistent throughout the data analysis is the negative linkage between the use of computers and student achievement, suggesting that computer use in science classrooms is detrimental to the improvement of seventh-grade science achievement test scores, at least as currently practiced. In contrast, use of textbooks and worksheets, as well as specific hands-on action strategies, have a positive relationship with science achievement. Certain demographic factors were correlated with student achievement. White and female students perform at a higher level than their non-white and male counterparts. Free and reduced lunch students typically performed at lower levels than higher socioeconomic students. Mediating variables, such as student effort and confidence, demonstrated positive relationships with student science achievement. The findings are unique in Kentucky, representing the first available connections among these particular variables. The study discussed these results and raised several puzzling questions. Future research is needed to answer these questions if Kentucky’s middle schools are to prosper in seventh-grade science in coming years.

First-Grade Parents' Perceptions of Elementary School Recess

Rose B. Jones, University of Southern Mississippi

Since many states no longer include recess in their elementary school curriculum, the purpose of this study was to identify first-grade parents’ attitudes toward the inclusion of recess. Sixty-six (66) parents of first-grade children from three classrooms in an elementary school in the southeast were surveyed. Of 66 surveyed, 43 parents responded, giving 65% returns. Participants responded to a 20-item survey about recess aspects. Data were analyzed using simple, descriptive statistics. Parents responded about importance of recess and exercise: (1) physical exercise is important (100%), (2) physical exercise is important to children at recess (97.7%), (3) at least one supervising teacher at recess needs CPR training (90.7%), (4) play is important to over-all development (100%), (5) enjoyed having recess when they were in first grade (100%), (6) their child benefits at recess because he/she is learning to get along with others (100%), (7) teachers should know names of students (97.7%), and (8) teachers should interact and talk with children (78.6%).  Additionally, data analysis revealed some negatives in regard to communication of the elementary school with parents, as some parents did not know if: (1) periodic safety inspections of playgrounds are conducted (83.3%), (2) there are written polices for children injured at recess (68.3%), (3) teachers at recess have taken recess safety training (82.9%), and (4) there is a recess disaster plan to evacuate students (57.1%).  However, 90.7% of parents felt their child was comfortable reporting behavior problems. In addition, 51.2% knew if rainy day recess is provided, while 97.6% wanted recess for special needs students. Results were consistent with suggestions by advocates, researchers, and educational organizations (IPA, AACRP, SECA, ACEI, NAEYC). The majority of participants (79.1%) support a cognitive recess curriculum. The findings of this study suggest that participants strongly support the inclusion of recess.

An Examination of the Impact of Early Retention, Academic and Behavioral Interventions, and Grade Retained on Academic Achievement

Madeline Kay Grantham and Carlen Henington, Mississippi State University

Much debate has arisen over the implications of implementing retention as an intervention for students experiencing academic achievement problems. Students are often retained in the early years of school (kindergarten or first grade) in an attempt to allow time for growth socially, cognitively, and physically (Robertson, 1997). This study investigated the long-term academic performance of 116 rural school participants who were retained only once in either kindergarten or first grade. The two conditions investigated were Retention Only and Retention Plus Intervention. Also examined were grade of retention, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. The archival data were the students’ mathematics and reading percentile scores (converted to z scores) and were analyzed using SPSS-11.5.   Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) and ANOVAS generated the descriptive and comparative results with significance established at the .05 level of probability (p < .05).  The retained-only group experienced statistically significant long-term achievement gains in reading and mathematics. Retention plus intervention had a smaller effect on reading achievement than did retention only. Similar levels of achievement occurred across both group conditions without a statistically significant impact on math achievement. Analysis failed to differentiate a significant effect by grade. Ethnicity, gender, and SES were examined and: (1) African-American children were retained more often than other ethnic groups, (2) males were retained more often than females, and, (3) retention occurred more often among lower SES students. The author concluded that retention is a viable intervention. However, when and why to retain needs to be considered and all options explored when retention is a consideration in kindergarten or first grade, increasing the likelihood that the best educational opportunities will be available for young children. Retention decisions, similarly to Special Education decisions, should result from a documented resistance to intervention and elimination of potential ethnic, SES, and gender bias.

Session 5.2

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           COLLEGE STUDENTS                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Kathy K. Franklin, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa

The Relationship Between Occupational Wellness and Work Ethic Among Army ROTC Students

T. Ross Owen, Morehead State University

A multi-dimensional wellness model incorporates aspects of intellectual, emotional, physical, social, spiritual, and occupational wellness.  Occupational wellness is worthy of investigative analysis because occupational risks are oftentimes overlooked in the workplace, and overlooked risks can result in increased costs for employers.  Modifiable occupational risks include work ethic.  Work ethic plays a key role in an individual’s performance on the job.  Work ethic is the system of values or beliefs guiding employees’ attitudes and behaviors.  Having a positive work ethic can be more crucial to occupational wellness than knowledge or skills. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between occupational wellness and work ethic among ROTC students.  Occupational wellness and work ethic are essential components of any Army ROTC service-learning curriculum.  The two instruments used in this study were TestWell (TW) and the Occupational Work Ethic Inventory (OWEI).  One hundred percent (n=98) of the ROTC students enrolled in MS102 Introduction to Leadership during spring  2001 at Morehead State University were given the TW and OWEI.  The overall reliability of TW, determined by computing Cronbach alpha, was .95.  The reliability of OWEI was .88.  The correlation between total TW score and total OWEI score was significant.  The Occupational Wellness subscale of TW significantly correlated with total OWEI score and with the OWEI subscales of Interpersonal Skills, Initiative, and Being Dependable.  The conclusion reached was that a relationship exists between work ethic and occupational wellness.  Implications for leadership education and development were discussed.

Needs Assessment for African-American Female College Students and Their Likelihood

for Entering Into Counseling

Debra A. Bell-Campbell, Mississippi State University

Despite the growing body of literature regarding advances in multicultural issues, some ambivalence exists toward identifying the counseling needs of African-American females in the college setting.  Comas-Diaz and Green (1994) noted that black women have distinctive needs that are separate from black men. Moreover, there is a plethora of literature that seeks to identify these sources of maladjusted behaviors and feelings among college students in an effort to create efficient programs and treatment modalities. Other studies have conducted need assessments and listed depression, anxiety, and relationship conflict as important issues (Stabb & Cogdal, 1992). Fifty African-American female college students (18 to 42 yrs.) chosen from a private, historically black college in Florida completed a 15-item questionnaire.  The items for the inventory were developed from problems and needs of African-American women expressed in the literature. The questionnaire consisted of demographic questions and concerns that a person would like to discuss with a counselor. The results were consistent with previous research.  Nearly all of the participants preferred a female counselor and ranked it of high importance when considering entering into counseling.  Seventy-two percent of the women age 31 to 42, married, single parent, or divorced rated anxiety, career concerns, and depression as high on the assessment.  Forty-five percent of the women, age 18 to 30 and single, rated relationships, finances, and self-esteem as high on the assessment. Finally, substance abuse and health-related concerns were rated low.  The limitations of this study were small sample size and reliability and validity concerns. Future studies should compare needs across different genders and ethnic groups. In conclusion, it becomes important to understand that African-American female college students share some of the same concerns as other students, yet their perception of how it impacts their life is significantly different.

Homecoming Queen: A Symbol of Student Ethnic/Racial Identity Achievement

Cecilia D. Lemon, University of Alabama, Birmingham,

and Kathy K. Franklin, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa

Predominantly white universities face the challenge of creating atmospheres where students representing a multitude of ethnicities and races will enroll, persist, matriculate, and gain the necessary skills to be productive in the workplace. An additional challenge exists for student affairs administrators to provide support for African-American students to develop leadership skills. Failure to achieve a sense of belonging at the undergraduate institution is a significant factor for student retention. Involvement in extra-curricular activities enhances student leadership development while a student and continues after graduation in the workplace. The purpose of this research was to explore the significance African-American students placed on participation in campus politics, the satisfaction gained by goal attainment, and their motivation in so doing.  Members of the Pan Hellenic Council at The University of Alabama volunteered to participate in a study whose purpose was to describe ways African-American sororities and fraternities asserted political influence. Students that were actively involved in campus political processes during the decades from 1970’s to the present were invited to recount their experiences related to student politics at the undergraduate level. Five juniors and seniors and two of the three alumni participants were presently enrolled at the university.  Significance of this research was related to the achievement of ethnic/racial identity development of African-American students at predominantly white institutions through participation in extra-curricular activities and the symbolic representations of the university by African-Americans. Data were collected in one focus group interview with students and eight individual interviews using a purposive sampling technique. Researchers used open coding to identify emergent themes. Results of the study revealed a description of efforts of African-American undergraduate students’ efforts to assert ethnic and racial identity through the election of African-American students to positions of visibility and/or influence.

Session 5.3

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           LEADERSHIP                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Mary Jane Bradley, Arkansas State University

Validating the Head, Heart, and Hands Expectation of a Leadership Platform

in a Principal Preparatory Program

Jack J. Klotz and Shelly Albritton, University of Central Arkansas

A movement in recent years has propelled preservice educational administrative programs to rethink their delivery structure in efforts to produce well-prepared school leaders who are not only grounded in cognitive-based content, but who are also grounded in the practical applications of performance-based content in real-world settings.  Criticisms that have been voiced concerning the delivery of traditional cognitive-based leadership preparation programs are that the training “does not reflect the realities of the workplace” (Murphy, 1992, p.88), that traditional administration training programs do not “provide the kind of experiences or knowledge that practitioners feel they need” (Muth, 1989, p.5), and that they may even be “dysfunctional in the actual/world of practice” (Sergiovanni, 1989, p.18).  As a result of the apparent disconnect between cognitive-based programs and the real-world application, administrative preparation programs need to develop performance-based delivery models to provide tomorrow's leaders with necessary tools to meet the real-life, real-people challenges found in today's schools.  This paper presented a specific model/schematic and its component parts through which principal preparatory candidates learn to develop and utilize an evolving philosophical leadership platform in order to reach decisions and guide actions.  Also provided within the paper were several samples of student-developed leadership platforms affording participants the opportunity to compare and contrast developed products.  The paper conveyed how these components may be addressed in a discourse guiding the future administrator's consideration of how to share such a platform with stakeholders, monitor its implementation, and collect data to assess its effectiveness.  Finally, samples of developed student leadership platforms were provided within the paper.

New Wine in Old Bottles: The Importance of Place in Educational Leadership

John Dalton, Steve Farmer, Elton Freichs, Monty Howell, Teresa Robinson,

and Larry Stein, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

In May of 2004, an Educational Administration doctoral cohort of 10 East Tennessee teachers and administrators visited a sample of Cincinnati public schools in conjunction with the Urban Educational Leadership Program based at The University of Cincinnati.  The rural educators planned to visit various schools in the urban setting to gain insights that would help them look at their own places through new lenses.  They were attempting to “contribute to a theory of place as a multidisciplinary construct for cultural analysis” (Gruenewald, 2003, p. 619). In this exploratory case study the researchers sought to gain insight into the development of both cognitive and affective understandings of place that were resultant of the students’ visits to the Cincinnati schools. Ten reflections were collected from the cohort members upon their return from these visits to three schools in Cincinnati. Based on the analysis of the reflections from members of the UT cohort, it appears that adult learners go through a series of cognitive processes when they encounter familiar proceedings in an unfamiliar place.  First, leaving one’s place and venturing into the unknown opens one’s mind, widens one’s lens, and stimulates learning.  Second, when one encounters a new context, one instinctively makes connections to ones own place, but one also begins to grapple with questions that emerge from the discomfort of confronting inconsistencies. Third, at this point one dispels old myths, create new beliefs, or confirm previous hunches that expands ones understanding of an unknown phenomenon.  Fourth, one eventually make judgments about the merit of what one sees.  Finally, one makes a choice in one’s minds to either reject what one finds and return to the comfort of what one knows, or one internalizes new insights that compels one to want to impact change.   

Obesity Among Mississippi's Public School Educators

Jack Blendinger, Mississippi State University

Obesity is a national concern. More than 50% of Americans have been categorized as being obese. This paper addressed obesity among Mississippi's public school administrators and teachers in relation to physical fitness, health risks, insurance costs, job-absentee rates, and difficulties experienced serving as positive role models for children and youth. In investigating obesity, the study's authors reviewed published and unpublished research papers dealing with obesity among Mississippi educators from 1995 to the present. Results of the investigation, along with suggestions for future study, were shared with session participants. An explanation of the Body Mass Index (BMI) and how to use it to determine obesity were also shared with participants.

Session 5.4

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           ADMINISTRATION                          Gardenview D

Presider:                                 Gail H. Weems, University of Arkansas, Little Rock

The Myths About Interviewing: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice

Glenn Sheets and David Bell, Arkansas Tech University

What biases do public school administrators possess? What characteristics and information do Arkansas school administrators value when making hiring decisions?  This study evolved from a common interest shared by two professors about what principals and superintendents actually use when they hire teachers. Data for the study were obtained during the 2003-2004 school year using a survey developed by the researchers. The survey was designed to examine the rating of importance by using rank order from 1-9 with 1 being the most important in the given area. The instrument asked for ranking in the following five areas: teacher abilities, school management, personnel qualities, professional and social traits, and verification of information.  The instrument was sent to 40 administrators.  The top rankings for hiring decisions from each area included:  (1) Teacher Abilities-motivating students, (2) School Management-interest in students, (3) Personal Qualities-attitude, (4) Professional & Social Traits-understanding of children, and (5) Verification of Information-quality of interview.

Do Experienced Principals Perceive the Superintendency as Male?

Michael C. Natarella, Harold Bishop, and Rose Mary Newton, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa

This study examined whether position announcements emphasizing specified superintendent roles (instructional leadership, managerial leadership, political leadership) and district size (1,500 students, 3,000 students, 12,000 students) influenced the job search behaviors of men and women differently. A randomly selected sample of elementary, middle, and secondary principals rated hypothetical position announcements emphasizing one of the roles and a specified district size. Contrary to expectations, both men and women rated position announcements emphasizing instructional leadership more positively than position announcements emphasizing either managerial or political leadership. The findings have theoretical and practical implications for recruitment researchers and organizational recruiters.

The Effect of Principal Centers on School Principals’ Perceptions of Professional Isolation

Kathleen T. Campbell, Academy of the Sacred Heart; Elizabeth LaForge, University of New Orleans;

and Lisa Taylor, St. John High School

Isolation from adult peers and lack of job-embedded professional development have long been complaints of school principals.  The concept of a principal center as a means of providing professional development and networking to school principals originated at Harvard University in the 1980’s.  Since then, many principal centers modeled on the Harvard prototype have sprung up all over the country.   Principal centers claim to make a difference in the lives of the school principals they serve, but there has been little evidence to support that claim.  The present study explored the phenomenon of principal isolation and the perceptions of isolation of principals who associated with a New Orleans area principal center in a two-year fellowship program.  Two research questions were addressed:  (1) Do principals perceive themselves to be isolated in their position? and (2) After becoming Fellows, in what ways did the School Leadership Center affect principals’ perceptions of professional isolation?  Twelve principals who represented a cross-section of principal fellows were individually interviewed in this qualitative multiple case study, after which a within-case and a cross-case analysis were performed.   Various themes emerged from the following conversation threads:  (1) loneliness and isolation, (2) benefits gained through involvement with the School Leadership Center, (3) how involvement with the School Leadership Center affected isolation, and (4) loneliness.  The data suggested that principals felt less isolated in their positions because of the professional networking experiences and the professional development opportunities provided by the leadership center.  The finding has implications for educational policy makers, who are being urged to support principal centers.  Quality programs do make a positive difference.

Session 5.5

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           MENTOR SESSION                          Gardenview E

Presiders:                               Qaisar Sultana, Eastern Kentucky University, and  Harry L. Bowman, Council

                         on Occupational Education

Hosted by MSERA Mentors, this session provided opportunities for attendees to collaborate with one or more long-term members of MSERA about attendees’ existing or potential research projects, proposed or draft manuscripts, dissertation ideas, data analysis, program evaluation projects, and other research-related topics. These sessions were offered primarily for new graduate student and professional members of the Mid-South Educational Research Association.

Session 5.6

3:00 P.M. – 3:50 P.M.                           REDESIGNING PRINCIPAL PREPARATION (Symposium)                          Le Conte

Organizer:                             Mary H. O’Phelan, Western Kentucky University

Redesigning Principal Preparation

Mary H. O'Phelan, Western Kentucky University

This symposium featured papers on five aspects of the process of redesigning a principal preparation program: the role of the Southern Regional Education Board, the role of SREB training modules, collaboration with community stakeholders, faculty perceptions of the process itself, and recommendations for others in similar endeavors.

Role of SREB in Redesign of Principal Preparation

Betty Fry, Southern Regional Education Board

The Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) is working with 16 southeastern states to achieve the goal that “every school has leadership that results in improved student performance – and leadership begins with an effective school principal.”  With a three-year grant from the Wallace Foundation in 2001, SREB launched an initiative to improve school leadership. This presentation focused on the role SREB has played in creating and supporting an 11-member University Leadership Development Network, provided a summary of what has been accomplished in the past three years,  and described the processes that have supported progress in redesign of educational leadership programs.

Using SREB Modules in Redesign

Bill Kelley, Western Kentucky University

In today's climate of accountability, NCLB, standards-based education, and parental and student expectations, a new paradigm has emerged to develop curriculum and instructional leaders. The SREB Modules are based in real world field-based experiences designed to provide the tools necessary for school leaders to be successful instructional leaders. Classroom activities and field experience combine to broaden the student's perspective and knowledge. Implementation of the SREB modules in the classroom has presented successes, as well as challenges. This session provided specific information as to how SREB curricular leadership modules can be used in principal preparation.

Collaboration with Districts and Community

Sharon Spall, Western Kentucky University

The creation of advisory councils and collaboration with stakeholders has been cited as a way to ensure that programs help students develop important skills (McRae, 1996; Gainous, Williams, & Romine, 1999; Cole & Ryan, 2001). In order to promote collaboration and obtain perspectives from the field, school district leaders and community leaders within the service region of the university met with university faculty concerning the development of the principal preparation program. This session summarized conversations with the advisory council regarding the content and delivery of a new standards-based program, as well as reflections on personal experience (Clandinin & Connley, 1994).

Faculty Perceptions about the Redesign Process

William Schlinker, Western Kentucky University

The redesign process has included hours of writing and discussion, including several faculty retreats. This session reported results of anonymous faculty responses to open-ended questions about the redesign process, its effects on them personally and professionally, as well as their views on strengths and weaknesses of the process, as well as the product. After IRB approval, faculty members were asked to respond to a series of questions about the process of redesign. Topics addressed in the survey included the role of faculty; benefits of process and product to faculty, students, and schools; collaboration among faculty; and problems encountered. 

Recommendations

Gayle Ecton, Jim Stone, and Vickie Basham, Western Kentucky University

This paper reported on the findings of a recent doctoral dissertation research effort comparing the attitudes and beliefs about classroom management held by alternatively certified and traditionally certified teachers at the high school level. The study included 57 traditionally certified teachers and 57 alternatively certified teachers in a single southeastern state. The ABCC (Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control) Inventory was used in this study to gather data in three domains: Instructional Management, People Management, and Behavior Management. This study did not find statistically significant differences between the two sample groups. A review of the literature was presented that included a historical overview of teacher certification, the evolution of alternative certification, the pros and cons of alternative certification, significant related studies, and classroom management. The methodology, results, and recommendations were discussed. The authors also explored possible rationales for why the results of this study differ from prevailing perceptions of differences among alternatively and traditionally certified teachers and implications the results of this study present. Copies of the paper, including references, were provided.

Session 5.7

3:00 P.M. - 3:50 P.M.                           DISPLAYS                          Lower Lobby

Teachers as Researchers

Marian Parker, Lisa Vardaman, and Judy Dye, Troy State University

Faculty members and graduate students engaged in the Reading Specialist program at Troy State University (AL) devised a collaborative activity intended to serve three primary purposes: (1) to expose inservice teachers to current and/or seminal research in the understanding of the reading processes of young people, (2) to model group reading and discussion practices that could be modified and replicated in the K-6 classroom, and (3) to determine whether, based upon achievement test scores over a period of time, these group reading and discussion practices are effective methods of increasing student achievement in any area of reading. Three groups were established; each read a different title, including The Read-Aloud Handbook (Trelease, 1995), The Fluent Reader (Rasinski, 2003), and What Really Matters to Struggling Readers (Allington, 2003). The display provided attendees with tips for establishing the reading communities, recommendations for titles, and ways to use the results to improve the teaching/learning environment.

Students Assess the Portfolio Process

Jeffery Dukes, Nancy C. Boling, and Lee Kem, Murray State University

What do student teachers really think about the portfolio process that is a requirement for graduation? At MSU, student teachers must turn in an “Eligibility Portfolio” as an authentic assessment of their capabilities to teach. Students continually complain about the time, effort, and energy that it takes away from their student teaching. The undergraduate researcher (McNair Scholar), assisted by two faculty members from the College of Education, conducted a survey of student teachers to determine their understanding of the portfolio process, what they learned from the process, and their ideas for alternate methods of assessment.  The population included 65 respondents at a final student teaching meeting on campus. The majority of those who responded to the survey saw the need for the portfolio process but was highly critical of the time and effort that the development of the portfolio required. Most of the participants offered ideas for alternate forms of assessment. All but 14 of the students felt that all education students should continue to complete the Eligibility Portfolio as a requirement for graduation. While there were conflicting opinions about the value of the portfolio process and its benefits to them as future teachers, most of the respondents agreed that they did learn from the experience—both technologically and professionally. This research project was an excellent example of action research.

Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Reality

Daphne W. Hubbard, Ruth S. Busby, Andrea M. Kent, Edward L. Shaw, and Susan M. Jordan,

University of South Alabama

Cole and Knowles (2000) asserted that a gap exists between theories espoused in college textbooks and reality in real life classroom settings. Informal surveys of preservice elementary education teachers seemed to support this idea.  In Prepared to Make a Difference (2003), the National Commission on Excellence in Elementary Teacher Preparation for Reading Instruction indicated that exemplary reading teachers not only possess the knowledge of research-based practices, but also demonstrate competency in implementing them.  In order to address this problem in teacher education, a number of teacher education faculty designed a project that would serve a local elementary school and give university students the opportunity to create a 21st century language arts classroom.  Months of planning culminated in a one-day event in which preservice teachers totally overhauled and transformed a novice third-grade teacher’s classroom.  The room was reorganized to facilitate best practice in literacy instruction including formation of a whole group area for shared reading, read aloud, and word work; a small group area for guided reading; a classroom library center independent reading; and other small center areas:  math, science, social studies, and technology. The presentation included a brief overview of the service project, practical guidelines for teachers for implementing such measures, a photo essay of the classroom before and after, and reflections and reactions from preservice teachers, the third-grade teacher, and his students. 

The Impact of No Child Left Behind on NCATE Accredited Elementary and Secondary Teacher Education

Programs: An Overview

Susan P. Santoli, Barbara Salyer, and Scott Hopkins, University of South Alabama

This study reported the results of a survey as to whether NCATE-accredited institutions throughout the United States made changes in Professional Education and/or Teaching Field Coursework, in either elementary and/or secondary areas, because of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Two hundred forty-eight of the 550 institutions surveyed (45.09%) responded that changes had been made because of NCLB. Areas of change included increasing hours in professional education and teaching field courses, and expanding alternative certification/licensure programs. There was also increased articulation/dialogue between Schools, Colleges, and Departments of Education (SCDEs) and Colleges of Arts and Sciences, as well as increased articulation between SCDEs and local schools/school districts. The percentages of SCDEs making changes were nearly uniform across all sizes of institutions.  Changes were made in both private and public SCDEs.

Practitioner Teachers: Are They Highly Qualified?

Cathy E. Stockton, Dawn Basinger, and David Gullatt, Louisiana Tech University

Practitioner Teacher Certification Program is an alternative certification program designed for first-year and experienced teachers who have a bachelor’s degree in an area other than education. The practitioner program is a new model for teacher preparation and certification that was developed at Louisiana Tech University in answer to Secretary of Education Rod Page’s call for a teacher preparation program in which certification regulations are kept to a minimum. Recent research suggests that subject-matter background has a positive effect on student performance (Meeting the Highly Qualified Teacher Challenge: The Secretary’s Annual Report on Teacher Quality). The Secretary’s Annual Report on Teacher Quality stated that teachers’ knowledge of pedagogy, degrees in education, and amount of time spent in practice teaching are less clearly linked to student performance. Presenters shared the Louisiana Tech University Practitioner Teacher Program plans of study, data collection instruments, and program data with participants. 

Session 6.1

4:00 P.M. – 4:50 P.M.                           ACHIEVEMENT                          Gardenview A

Presider:                                 Edward L. Shaw, Jr. University of South Alabama

Modifiable Behaviors that Affect Performance

Christon G. Arthur, Tennessee State University

Widespread concern exists that college students are not assuming enough responsibility for their academic success. As students assume greater responsibility for their academic experiences, the greater the likelihood that they will achieve academic success. Thus, educators have been seeking to find ways to academically engage students and thereby improve their academic success. This study’s theoretical framework is based on the philosophical belief that the more students strive to control the events that affect them academically, the more likely they are to succeed in college. Therefore, students have a responsibility for their educational success. It is not good enough for students to be held responsible for their academic success. They should be responsible. This distinction suggests that students who are held responsible will work only when compelled to, while those who are being responsible will work without constant reminders or prodding. A correlation study was used to describe in quantitative terms students’ attitudes about academics, their academic behaviors, and the degree to which these variables relate to GPA. The correlation design was used to identify predictor variables of the criterion variable GPA. The linear combination of the variables ACT and diligence were able to explain 11% of the variance in GPA. When the coefficients for ACT and diligence are applied to the regression equation, a student with an ACT of 19 and who is not diligent had a predicted GPA of 2.585. On the other hand, if that student with an ACT of 19 were to become highly diligent then his GPA will improve to a 3.107. By becoming more diligent a student may increase his GPA from a C to a B. The behaviors that affect the academic performance of students are under the control of students. They are modifiable! An improvement in diligence translates to an improvement in GPA.

The Impact of Reading Recovery on Student Performance:

A Comparison of Stanford Achievement Test Scores

David C. Little, Samford University, and Gwendolyn Tilghman, Birmingham (AL) City Schools

The goal of this study was to determine whether elementary students enrolled in the Reading Recovery Intervention Program scored significantly higher in total reading and comprehension batteries of the Stanford Achievement Test 9 when compared with a control group of elementary students not enrolled in Reading Recovery.  Reading Recovery is an early intervention reading program developed in New Zealand by Marie Clay.  Numerous studies, including research by Schwartz et al. and Askew et al., indicate that the Reading Recovery program can have a significantly positive impact on student reading scores on standardized reading tests. Data derived from the SAT 9 for students' scores on total reading and comprehension were compiled as study data.  Scores were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).  There were found to be significant differences in the reading and comprehension scores of the experimental and control groups.  Conclusions based on the research indicate that struggling readers who participate in the Reading Recovery program may be positively impacted regarding SAT 9 scores in reading and comprehension when compared with control groups of struggling readers who do not participate in Reading Recovery.

Graduate Research Course: Scores Compared by Sex

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, and Pamela M. Broadston,

University of Arkansas, Little Rock

Are there performance differences between male and female students in a graduate-level research class?  To investigate this question, the study compared test scores before and after a graduate-level advanced research class by sex.  The six classes that were the focus of this study were offered in the fall 2001, spring and fall 2002 and 2003, and spring 2004 terms under the same instructor.  All sections incorporated article critiques, a critique-based exam, and an oral presentation of a grant application completed by the student.  The critiques and grant application were included to provide the students with opportunities to apply the research knowledge they had acquired from their basic research courses.  There were 83 participants for whom there was complete information, comprising 53 females (64%) and 30 males (36%).  Multiple-choice pretests and posttests on fundamental research topics were administered.  A 30-item posttest yielded a somewhat low Cronbach's alpha of 0.53.  Since there were only negligible differences in the pretest scores as to sex, a two-sample t-test was run on the posttest scores.  The assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity were verified by the Omnibus Normality of Residuals and Modified-Levene Equal-Variance tests, but random selection was not possible since students cannot be randomly assigned to these classes.  The t-test indicated that the null hypothesis of no difference between the posttest scores for the males and females could not be rejected at the 0.05 level (t=0.80, p=0.43).  The effect size, d=0.18, was relatively small (Cohen).  The Mann-Whitney U test agreed (Z=0.68, p=0.50).  The conclusion was that there were no practical differences in the sexes as to their test scores, suggesting that there are no particular academic benefits for one sex over the other in these graduate research classes.

Session 6.2

4:00 P.M. – 4:50 P.M.                           COLLEGE STUDENTS                          Gardenview B

Presider:                                 Cecilia D. Lemon, University of Alabama, Birmingham

Increasing Class Attendance Through Randomly Scheduled Extra-Credit Reactions to Course Lectures

Daniel L. Fudge and Robert L. Williams, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Research has shown that exam scores and performance on related measures are affected by class attendance in college courses. Students who attend class regularly have a better chance of performing well in a course than those who are frequently absent. This is especially true for students obtaining grades in the low- to mid-ranges. Considerable research is available on ways to increase attendance. Most of the research to date has revolved around punitive measures, negative reinforcement, and contingencies between grades and attendance. In contrast, the current study provided positive reinforcement in the form of extra-credit contingencies applied in class. Three classes were involved in the study. The class receiving the extra-credit contingencies (treatment class) included approximately 55 students in an educational psychology class at a large public university. Each of two non-treatment classes also had approximately 55 students taking the same course at the same university. The dependent variables in the study were:  (1) the number of students who attended class on days when no credit-producing activities (e.g., exams, quizzes) were scheduled, and (2) their exam performance at the end of each treatment phase. The independent variable was unannounced extra-credit for written reactions to instructor lectures assigned at the end of randomly selected lectures during two units of the treatment class. The results indicated that students attended class more often on days when the contingency was in place. This was determined through both intra-subject (across phases within the treatment class) and inter-subject comparisons (between the treatment and the two non-treatment classes for the same units). Exam performance was higher for the treatment class during the treatment units and higher than in the same units in the non-treatment classes. This study demonstrated a manageable, positive way to increase attendance that would likely translate into higher exam performance.

Predictors and Correlates of Undergraduate Students’ Career Maturity

John K. Rugutt, Illinois State University

Today’s college students are much less likely than those in their parents’ generation to follow a single career path, that is, taking jobs after graduating from college and staying with the organizations for their entire careers until retirement. More likely, current students will have multiple career experiences over their working decades of life. As this is a fact of life in the modern economy, the ability of students to make effective career-related decisions for themselves has become increasingly more important.  The empirical study of career maturity has its foundations in the concepts of personal development, including identity formation and in the study of familial influences on vocational choice, as noted by Guerra and Braungart-Rieker (1999). From a developmental standpoint, the college experience forces students out of their comfort zones, often to a new place with unknown social factors. This push allows for growth opportunities in decision making of many types, including career decision making. Familial influences related to career maturity such as those studied by Hargrove, Creagh, and Burgess (2002) include the degree of family conflict and expressiveness and emphasis orientations in the achievement, intellectual-cultural, and moral-religious domains.  This study investigated predictors and correlates of career maturity with a sample of 871 undergraduate students. Preliminary results showed that no significant relationship between mother’s educational attainment and student’s career maturity existed. However, career maturity was significantly correlated with classification and college GPA. The major findings and conclusions of the study were discussed in view of their implications for future research, measurement theory, research design methodology, and practice.

Generic Vocabulary Development as a Predictor and Outcome Variable

in a Large Human Development Course

Haley E. Crisp and Robert L. Williams, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Students’ generic vocabulary can play a pivotal role in their collegiate experience, both as a predictor and outcome of learning. In fact, poor vocabulary development has been identified as the most important barrier to lecture and text comprehension in college courses. College students themselves consider a limited vocabulary to be a major impediment to success in their courses. The current research examined the relationship between students’ generic vocabulary and their performance on a national critical thinking test and multiple-choice exams in a large undergraduate course. Also of interest was whether students with high, average, and low vocabularies made similar gains in their vocabulary development during the course. Students in 10 sections of the course participated in the study. The key measure used was a 50-item multiple choice generic vocabulary test given at the beginning and end of the course. The vocabulary instrument mainly included words that appeared on the five multiple-choice exams in the course. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal-Form S (WGCTA-S) also was administered at the beginning of the course, and the multiple-choice exams were administered throughout the course. Pre-vocabulary scores were used to divide students into low, average, and high-performing groups. Results yielded significant differences between the performance groups on course exams and the WGCTA-S. Specifically, students in the high-performing group scored better on both measures than students in the low and average-performing groups. However, compared to the high performers, students in the low and average performing groups made greater gains in vocabulary from pre- to posttest. A principal conclusion of this study was that entry and exit generic vocabulary have important predictive and outcome potential in large undergraduate courses. The study demonstrated that vocabulary improvement can be facilitated by providing students an opportunity to learn advanced vocabulary words before encountering them on exams.

Reading and College Students

Lee Kem, Murray State University

Are all students entering college reading at grade level? Will students be able to handle the amount of reading and comprehension involved in college courses? What reading problems are brought with the student from high school? Reading difficulty and an aversion to reading are major contributors to lack of success in college. To increase the probability of retention and success of these students, early identification and intervention are essential. Just as no child should be left behind in the public school, students in college should be provided opportunities to succeed. To identify reading problems and assist students toward success, a questionnaire, “The Reading Attitude Survey,” was developed for use with college freshmen. Research was conducted at a midwest university. The survey was administered to 250 students as part of the education freshman orientation courses. The survey identified students with reading issues and correlated with lower ACT reading scores. The survey also provided insight into the source of the reading problems, thus providing information for the student and the freshman orientation instructor. This information was then discussed with the students, and proper resource referrals were made. The Reading Attitude Survey was also administered to three different groups of adult college advisors who took the survey from an assigned reading problem perspective. These data were correlated with the freshman orientation survey results. Objectives were to share research based on the questionnaire administered to freshmen, to take the questionnaire, to discuss the outcomes and results, and to identify intervention strategies and resources for students. This presentation is applicable to those interested in college-level reading difficulties, retention, remediation, and success in college.

Session 6.3

4:00 P.M. – 4:50 P.M.                           LEADERSHIP                          Gardenview C

Presider:                                 Daphne Hubbard, University of South Alabama

Research Findings of Leadership Styles of Department Chairs at the University of Montevallo

Glee Whitsett, University of Montevallo

Department chairs have the authority to make most departmental decisions, but rarely does formal training exist. They are left without an instruction manual, and some people may flounder. As Redwood, Goldwasser, and Street (1999) put it, “Some leaders are born, but most need help” (p. 64). Glaser and Smalley (1995) cited a 1992 survey by Industry Week that reported “less than half of the respondents said their bosses were good listeners. Fifty-five percent complained that their supervisors were ‘poor’ or ‘average’ in providing direction, in their knowledge of subordinates’ jobs, and at communicating goals” (1995, p.32).  Therefore, there is a need to study how the leadership styles among department chairs at the university level may be affected. This study compared the leadership styles of chairs on the campus of The University of Montevallo in the spring of 2002. This mixed-methods study was designed to identify the leadership styles, adaptability, and range of chairs; to compare these factors in terms of gender of participants; and to examine how these factors were affected by selected demographics. One hundred twenty-six faculty members and 10 department chairs were surveyed. Personal interviews were conducted with faculty and departments chairs. The results were statistically analyzed using SPSS version 11.0. The statistics showed that a significant difference exists on the mean scores of leadership adaptability of department chairs between department chairs and faculty members. There was insufficient evidence from the ANOVA to show that a significant difference exists for leadership adaptability levels among department chairs as perceived by faculty members, with the exception of enrollment size of the department. Further research should be conducted using a battery of personality tests to determine if personality type has an effect upon leadership styles. These tests may include life satisfaction, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, and anger and aggression.

Analysis of Gender Differences of Public School Superintendents' Conflict Management

Mode in Relation to the Synergistic Leadership Theory

Kimberly O. Truslow, University of Central Arkansas

This presentation explored the pressure caused by conflict resolution and personnel issues accompanied by the drive for increased student achievement placed on superintendents that may be the driving factor to the high turnover rate within the superintendency. The manner in which superintendents confront, control, and adapt to conflict is reflective of their personal conflict management modes.  This presentation presented the results of this study regarding the differences in conflict management modes of male and female public school superintendents and more specifically the relationship between superintendents’ conflict management modes and the Synergistic Leadership Theory (SLT). The SLT is a framework that encompasses leadership behaviors, organizational structure, and external forces, as well as values, beliefs, and attitudes.  The target population utilized in this study consisted of all 13,728 public school superintendents in the United States. The stratified random sample included 500 female and 500 male superintendents.  Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through the Thomas-Kilmann Inventory (TKI), an open-ended interview protocol, and the Organizational Leadership Effectiveness Inventory (OLEI). Chi-square tests revealed a significant difference between the number of males and females in each of the five conflict management modes. The Cramer’s V for effect size also demonstrated a strong effect size at the p<.001 level. Qualitative data revealed that there was a relationship between conflict management mode and the factors of the SLT. A full analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data collected in this study was presented, along with the conclusions and recommendations for utilization by institutions of higher education charged with the development and delivery of graduate educational administration programs designed to prepare future school superintendents.

Can Community Survive in a Landscape of Justice?

Alison E. Buehler and Christopher Henderson, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

This study addressed the question, how do we define “effective” leadership preparation programs in light of the rapidly changing contexts of schools in the United States?  The purposes of this study were to understand the experiences of cohort members at the graduate level of an educational administration program in a Research I-Extensive Institute in the southeastern United States, and to re-examine the value the cohort model holds for its members and for the field of educational administration programs in light of current contextual demands.  Framing educational administration programs around the cohort structure, thereby fostering learning communities, appears to meet the challenges of living in a diverse, global society and understanding schools as communities (Furman-Brown, 1999).  However, despite positive research and support received for cohorts among the educational leadership community, the use of cohorts in educational administration do not always garner the support from the larger university administration necessary for their ongoing success (Millstein, 1992). Some educational administration programs are being forced to abandon the cohort model in favor of the more traditional programming from which they recently emerged.  In this exploratory case study two cohorts were examined:  one at the doctoral level, the other at the master’s level. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and documents with 17 participants. The data were then analyzed using Merriam’s (1998) constant comparative method through two frameworks, Furman’s (2003) Ethic of Community and Norris, Barnett, Bassom, & Yerkes (2002) Cohort Model. In order to ensure trustworthiness of the findings, data sources were triangulated using Fielding and Fielding’s (1986) data source and investigator triangulation methods.  Findings from the study confirmed the value of academic and personal support provided by learning communities, exposed contradictions between the ethic of community and the ethic of justice in educational leadership programs, and disclosed new challenges for future transformational leaders.

Session 6.4

4:00 P.M. – 4:50 P.M.                           COUNSELING                          Gardenview E

Presider:                                 Nancy C. Boling, Murray State University

Sensitizing Supervisors and Counselors to Child Sexual Abuse Using the Message Program

Yun H. Gardner, Mississippi State University

Eighteen master-level counseling students and nine doctoral-level counseling supervisors’ knowledge of and attitude toward Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) were explored though the use of the Sex Abuse Graduate Education (MESSAGE) program, the Counselor Child Sexual Abuse Knowledge Index (C-Know), and the Child Sexual Abuse Attitude Scale (CSAAS).  Results indicated that counseling students’ (n = 27) knowledge of child sexual abuse related issues were limited prior to CSA training. However, upon training in the MESSAGE program, participants’ knowledge scores showed a significant increase, p = .000, indicating the effectiveness of the MESSAGE program in training both master and doctoral-level graduate students. However, the repeated ANOVA results indicated that exposure to CSA training tends to increase the negative attitudes toward CSA of master’s level students (Cognition score, F = 7.37, p = .015, MSE = 1.39; Value score, F= 6.78, p= .019, MSE = 56.89), but failed to show a similar effect for doctoral-level counseling students.  This seems to indicate that doctoral counseling students with more experience and training in CSA issues have more positive attitudes toward CSA clients. The preliminary results of this study point to the need for further specialized training and affect management of master-level students in dealing with the abreactions related to working with clients who are presented with child sexual abuse issues, thereby decreasing the negative experiences of CSA clients.

Identifying the Critical Characteristics of Substance Abuse Counselor Supervisors

Lee A. Garner and Katherine Dooley, Mississippi State University

This pilot study was designed to identify the characteristics that supervisees consider critical in supervisors who work in substance abuse settings. Little empirical research in the area of clinical supervision of substance abuse counselors exists. Culbreth and Borders (1999) completed one of the few studies of substance abuse counselors. These authors found that counselors in recovery preferred supervision be given by supervisors who were also in recovery. After reviewing the literature, a 35-item questionnaire was developed that included a variety of supervisor characteristics that are important in a successful supervisory relationship. One item stated, “A supervisor cannot be effective without a thorough knowledge of the 12 Steps.” Also, a listing of 16 characteristics of supervisors was ranked on a scale of most:  (1) to least (10) importance. Demographics were also collected:  (1) gender, (2) race/ethnicity, (3) highest degree earned, (4) degree seeking, (5) years of counseling experience, (6) years of experience as supervisor, (7) license held, and (8) undergraduate college major.  Data were collected by surveying graduate students in graduate counseling classes. Of the 27 participants, 21 were women and six were men. The majority of the sample, 74%, was Caucasian.  Descriptive statistics, means, standard deviations, and percentages were computed on the questionnaire and ranking. The following critical characteristics of supervisors emerged as important to the participants:  (1) ability to confront supervisee who relapsed, (2) ability to recognize the warning signs of relapse, (3) having a thorough knowledge of the effects of illegal drugs, and (4) creating a therapeutic milieu with supervisees. Supervisors were also expected to know about Alcoholics Anonymous and understand thoroughly the 12-Step model recovery. Recovery status of the supervisor was ranked low and did not support the work of Culbreth and Borders (1999). Further study with a larger and more diverse sample is planned.

School Administrator's Attitudes toward Role and Function of School Counseling

Dean Owen, Morehead State University

Previous research has documented a role conflict for many school counselors. While school counselors are traditionally trained to provide individual, small group, and classroom guidance services, many counselors express concern that they often must assume a variety of administrative or clerical duties at the behest of the school principal, leaving correspondingly less time to provide traditional counseling services to students.  Clearly, the school principal or other school administrator is in a position to influence the role and function of the school guidance program.  The purpose of this study was to survey the attitudes of school principals with regard to the role and function of the school counselor's activities.  A total of 39 school principals and other administrators from a 22-county service region served by Morehead State University were the subjects of this investigation.  Each of these subjects was asked to rate 27 traditional counselor functions on a scale ranging from “Totally unnecessary” to “Highly essential.”  Results of the study indicated counseling programs are highly valued, and some counselor functions are regarded as far more significant and essential than others.  These subjects also indicated far less utilization of counselors for administrative duties than is reported by counselors.  Seventy-two percent of the respondents reported that the counseling programs made a critical or essential contribution to the school's mission.

Session 6.5

4:00 P.M. – 4:50 P.M.                           WRITING AND GETTING PUBLISHED (Training Session)         Le Conte

John R. Petry, University of Memphis

Opportunities and problems associated with writing and publishing articles and manuscripts were discussed. Topics included sources of ideals for research and writing, guides for effective writing, elements of style, publication sources, preparing and submitting a manuscript, ethics in authorship, understanding the publishing process, and using writing/publishing for professional development. Objectives of the session were to increase the awareness of opportunities to publish, raise standards for writing quality manuscripts, and establish minimum guidelines for professional growth. The session addressed pertinent information designed to aid in the achievement of these goals. Activities included a diagnosis of the basic writing skills of attendees, analysis of articles ready for submission to publications, and administration of a predictive measure for publication success. Several sources for publishing (both print and electronic) were presented and discussed that gave the manuscript submitters a higher chance of achieving success or acceptance. Participants' manuscripts were evaluated for their content, style, impact on the reader, and value to the scholarly community. Important emphases included knowing the audience to whom the publication is intended, knowing the expectations of the editor and journal and making sure the article addresses its main point effectively, having a definite message and reason for writing, writing effectively and distinctly, writing about subjects that the author knows, following the style of the publisher's writing, knowing the editor's preferences, and using the journal’s format, understanding the publishing process: how journal articles have been requested, reviewed, rewritten, and accepted; recognizing that the writing, reviewing, and editing processes are time consuming; and  following up on every submission, contacting the editor to determine status, and learning how to edit personal submissions. Participants had a broad understanding of writing and publishing as a result of attending this session and were motivated to begin or continue the process.

Session 6.6

4:00 P.M. - 4:50 P.M.                           DISPLAYS                          Lower Lobby

Language Maintenance in Guatemala and United States Communities

Marlynn K. Martin, Rankin County School District, and Kristin Grayson, Emporia State University

This poster presentation addressed the complex nature of linguistic and cultural maintenance and language learning for language minority populations.  Presenters compared Guatemalans in San Jose' Chiruyuju, Guatemala and Guatemalans in Rome, Georgia, and explored language-learning and cultural maintenance. Using the socio-cultural framework, presenters compared Guatemalans in San Jose' Chiruyuju, Guatemala and Guatemalans in Rome, Georgia in terms of why and the degree to which they have learned the language of the dominant group.  One group learns the dominant language of the country in which they live, i.e., Spanish, and the other learned the dominant language of their host country.  Guatemala is a country whose history, like the United States, is marked by struggles between indigenous and immigrant cultural groups.  In both countries equal educational opportunity is perceived as essential and is mandated but difficult to achieve. The session detailed similarities and differences between these two settings in achieving community integration and educational equality for diverse cultural groups.  One point of interest is that bilingual education exists in this small Guatemalan village; young children begin school speaking the home language of Kaqchikel and in the first few years of school are instructed in both Kaqchikel and Spanish.  Despite years of prejudice and violence, indigenous people in Guatemala still wear traditional dress and continue to speak their native language even in large urban areas.  What has kept these traditions strong? The display featured regalia from the Guatemalan village, including crafts, native dress, and samples of students' work.  Photographs and audio recordings of  speech and music showed English, Spanish, and Kaqchikel speakers from the two communities. 

Involving the Critical Stakeholders in Educational Reform

Doug Feldmann, University of Southern Mississippi

This study examined perspectives on the purposes of schooling in the United States as related to preservice teachers in an elementary education program.  With the recent influx of new federal, state, and local performance standards for public schools, further debate has been opened as to what the actual structure and purpose of schooling should resemble – for the present time and into the future.  Consequently, this issue is perhaps no more importantly discussed than among the future educators in teacher preparation programs, as these individuals will literally shape the course that pedagogical processes take in the decades to come, and who will emphasize the aspects of education which they deem most important.  Within this study, 80 students in a junior-level elementary education course at a medium-sized university in the southeastern United States were given a questionnaire to complete, asking for their perspectives on the priority of certain topics in the greater purpose of public education.  The university course in which the students completed the questionnaire was the “Social Studies Teaching Methods” component within a block setting, whereby all of the students were simultaneously enrolled in a “Literacy Teaching Methods” course and a “Mathematics Teaching Methods” course (course names are pseudonyms).  The data were collected during the fall semester 2003 and the spring semester 2004.  This “Elementary Block” of courses took place in the semester prior to the student teaching experience for all of the participants.  During the semester of the completion of this questionnaire, the students were also in the process of completing their second extensive field experience and visiting a local elementary school for an entire day once a week, while simultaneously fulfilling their block coursework on campus.

Special Education Accountability in MSERA States: Applying Focused Monitoring

to State and Local  Programs

Lisa L. Persinger, Lauren Doyle, Jane Nell Luster, and W. Alan Coulter,

Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

Monitoring and enforcement of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) has always been a topic of great concern among advocates, school district and state administrators, and federal officials.  The National Council on Disability reports that no state has ever been found by the U. S. Office of Education to be in full compliance with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (NCD, 2001).  Although a number of monitoring models have been implemented over the years, there has never been an effort to implement a focused monitoring system in which data collection and a small number of carefully-chosen priorities drive the process and intervention and enforcement occurs according to predetermined criteria. The Focused Monitoring model outlined in this display is used by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), as well as an increasing number of states, and is replicable by state education agencies and local districts.  Special educators have recognized the value of measuring results. Priorities are the key elements of the IDEA, defined as those items that, if fully implemented, would make a significant difference for infants and toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities. These priorities have been selected by a broad group of stakeholders after significant public input. While not intended to minimize the importance of other elements of the IDEA, it is the consensus of the stakeholder group that if these priorities are implemented, outcomes for infants and toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities will improve, and implementation of the other requirements of the IDEA will naturally follow. Each priority and key indicator was reviewed and defined for IDEA Part B. MSERA’s six states’ performance data was displayed within the context of the national data.

Reflections on a Diversity Field Placement by Preservice Teacher Education Students

Marci A. Malinsky, Arkansas State University

This session explored the reflections of seniors enrolled in a pre-teacher program who were specifically placed in a more diverse environment for part of their field training. The students attended a branch campus in Mountain Home, Arkansas. It was approximately three hours away from the main campus, and existed in a rural area of the Ozark Mountains. The area has a rich culture of its own, but has very little diversity. Many small close-knit communities have developed due to the hilly countryside and rural roads. The diversity experience itself consisted of the students spending one week at the main campus in Jonesboro, AR. There they were assigned to classrooms in the Jonesboro public schools. They were paired up with a pre-teacher student from the main campus. They were assigned to a mentor teacher as well. They spent their days in the classroom observing and teaching lessons. In the evenings they had seminars and discussion sessions presented by the teacher education professors from the main campus. They also had access to cultural experiences such as a visit to the Civil Rights Museum in Memphis. The research methodology was both qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative aspect was data taken from a survey of the students after having taken part in the diversity field placement. The information was presented in a bar graph. The qualitative aspect was taken from interviews of the students as they participated in the diversity field placement. Quotes from the students were displayed. The summary of the research was in the form of a paper that was suitable for presentation at the conference, and the paper was put into an article format for possible publication in ERIC or other publications.