**** PLEASE NOTE ****

Some sessions Wednesday afternoon will be held on the campus of the University of Arkansas-Little Rock. Several of these are designed to take advantage of advanced learning technologies available on campus, and include training and demonstration sessions. Additionally, the keynote address and Joint Universities Reception will be hosted by UALR.

Busses will begin running between the Doubletree and UALR well in advance of the sessions. The scheduled departures are as follows:

Doubletree to UALR: 1:45 p.m., 2:45 p.m., 4:00 pm, and 4:30 p.m.

UALR to Doubletree: 7:30 p.m. and 8:30 p.m.

The trip takes approximately 30 minutes – please plan your schedule accordingly.

9:30 A.M. - 10:20 A.M.

Alternative Certification Program: A Collaborative Effort Between Hamilton County Department of Education and The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Evaluation

Cynthia M. Gettys and Jane T. Brower, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

            Early in the 1980s, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCEI) erroneously predicted a dramatic shortage of teachers by 1992.  States began to look for ways to certify more teachers more quickly than the typical four-year undergraduate teacher education program.  By 2000, 47 states, plus the District of Columbia, reported having some type of alternative teacher certification program to the NCEI, that has been polling the state departments of education annually since 1983 regarding teacher education and certification.

            By 2000, a shortage of teachers had emerged.  This research paper summarized and evaluated the Alternative Certification Program jointly developed by the Hamilton County Department of Education (HCDE) and The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (UTC), and shared data evaluating the program by all participants enrolled in Cohorts I and II.   While telling an ethnographic story, this paper included statistical comparisons between and among cohort groups.   All recorded voices were active participants from the university, the local education agency, or both cohort groups that have become the first alternatively certified teachers in Hamilton County, Tennessee. The data were compiled through the administration of an open-ended survey. 

            Cohort I was formed with the selection of 12 individuals in May 1999.  Seventy-five percent of the first cohort group completed its first year of teaching on June 1, 2000 and signed contracts committing to return to their classrooms for a second and now a third year.  Ninety-five percent of the second cohort group completed its first year of teaching on June 1, 2001 and signed contracts committing to return to their classrooms for a second year.  One hundred percent of both cohorts returned completed surveys.

Building a Model to Predict Which Students Will Pass the Praxis I Exams for Arkansas

Linda H. Thornton, Harding University

            Complex policy issues surround the stringency of teacher licensure exams.  Many states, including Arkansas, have recently raised minimum passing scores on the Praxis I exam.  Gitomer, Latham, and Ziomek (1997) found that those who passed the Praxis I exams had higher SAT/ACT scores and grade point averages than those who failed.  In the interest of maintaining a diverse pool of prospective teachers, it is important that teacher preparation institutions assist promising teacher candidates in meeting licensure requirements.  Institutions should have a model using admission test scores and class grades to predict which students might require extensive help in meeting licensure requirements.

            All possible models comprised of different subsets of predictor variables were analyzed using discriminant analysis cross-validated with leave-one-out classification estimates.  The degree to which each model performed better than proportional chance was tested with Huberty's (1994) z statistic.

Legal Issues To Be Considered When Testing Teachers for Initial Licensing

Donna Pascoe and Glennelle Halpin, Auburn University

            Do teachers have the basic minimum competencies to be effective educators? To answer this question, the school reform movement experiencing rapid public acceptance is teacher testing. Standardized criterion-referenced tests provide a quick, easy, and observable measure of whether or not a teacher candidate possesses the basic minimum competencies required to receive initial teacher licensure.

           Implementing a testing program is not as simple as one might think. As with all tests, teacher-licensing exams must be valid, reliable, fair, and legally defensible. Court decisions have impacted teacher testing by attempting to resolve both technical and social problems associated with testing. Legal actions related to testing have helped to define the direction of the competency-based testing movement. Individuals responsible for teacher testing programs must have a working understanding of what makes a test valid, reliable, and unbiased as well as an understanding of how and when testing may be used.

            This review covered the test components of validity, reliability, job-relatedness, and test bias as determined by impact for teacher licensing exams. The literature provided a history of court decisions and legal rulings that have shaped policy, test design, and use. The two most influential resources and those that provide operational direction for test construction, use, and evaluation of test results have been the 1978 revised edition of the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978/2000) and the revised edition of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA et al., 1999). A review of the important criteria for implementing a fair and legal testing program was discussed, along with guidelines that provided a framework for determining the proper use of tests and other selection procedures. Licensing and certification boards from State Departments of Education would benefit from this review of literature as it pertains to testing requirements determined by federal law and psychometric practices.

Chair: Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

Ensuring the Viability of Curriculum Mapping in a School Improvement Plan

Michael S. Mills, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            This paper focused on the initial phase of a curriculum-mapping program as part of the development of a state-mandated school improvement plan. Mapping, a system of curriculum analysis and subsequent alignment, has been cited as a valuable component of curriculum renewal and staff development (English, 1984; Jacobs, 1997). Further research has described the efficacy and positive impact that curriculum mapping has on student achievement and teacher job satisfaction. Particularly valuable has been the much-needed flexibility to address the changing curricular needs of each school district, as well as the anticipated level of teacher participation respective to curriculum restructuring.

            The state of Arkansas has mandated that curriculum mapping be an integral component of the ACSIP (Arkansas Consolidated School Improvement Plan) process but has left school districts with no formal or structured guidance for this aspect of school improvement planning. However, school districts in Arkansas have banded together in electronic message boards and professional workshops to get a sense of how to make this innovative program of curriculum mapping work. Yet, there has been little evidence that a wholehearted commitment to mapping has been made statewide. Given this perspective, this paper attempted to address concerns of administrators and teachers mired in this stage of the school improvement process.

            This paper shared various observations and guidelines respective to the strategic implementation of a curriculum-mapping plan within the framework of the school improvement process. Particular areas of concern included the following: (1) districtwide efforts to account for site-based flexibility, (2) development of a unified computer curriculum-mapping database, (3) guidelines for securing genuine staff adoption of a curriculum-mapping proposal, and (4) long-term planning aimed at sustaining staff interest and commitment.

Team Teaching in the Elementary School: A Long‑Term Qualitative Study of Teacher Planning and Decision‑Making

John F. Riley, The University of Montevallo

            This study synthesized three phases of a longitudinal case study of collaborative planning and decision making in a grade-level team of elementary teachers.  The purpose of this study was to examine planning and decision making of an elementary grade-level team during grade-level team meetings.

            Twelve elementary teachers in a suburban school district in the Mid-South participated in this study over a three-year period.  They ranged from beginning teachers to those with more than ten years' teaching experience.  One teacher was African American; the others were white, non-Hispanic.  All teachers were members of a grade-level team that met together to plan and carry out administrative functions.

            Teachers were observed during regular weekly team planning meetings, some for curriculum planning, and some for team business.  Team captains conducted all of these meetings.  During these meetings, levels of participation of team members were initially recorded, and the types of interactions were categorized.  In the second phase, field notes on discussion topics and actions toward consensus and decision making were compiled. In the third phase, team members were interviewed with regard to their perceptions of team teaching in general, the functioning of this team in particular, their role in shared decision making, and their perceptions of the evolving roles of team members because of changes in personnel.   Teachers on this team participated in interviews of prospective teachers for the team, and they also responded to questions regarding their participation in this process.

            These data provided a rich source for analysis.  Critical issues addressed in this paper included the role of the team captain, the effect of variations in experience and philosophical stance among team members on team functioning, the role of continuity (and the lack of it) in teambuilding, and the value of team planning in the induction of beginning teachers.

Assessing the Core Beliefs of School Staff:  A Local School District's Experience in Operationalizing a Strategic Plan

James R. Hutto, Petal (Mississippi) School District, and Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas

            Strategic plans are useful in guiding decision making and action in school districts. However, the beliefs of persons in a school district must be the foundation of the strategic plan and must represent a set of commonly held beliefs by the various groups that make up the community. To optimize effectiveness, school districts must take into account the personal beliefs of school employees as they relate to the strategic plan and develop means to assess these beliefs in prospective employees. 

            This paper described one school district's experience in developing an instrument to be used in assessing the core beliefs of a recently developed strategic plan. The discussion (1) documents the activities of the school district and (2) serves as a possible model for other school districts seeking to develop similar instruments to assess the beliefs of their school personnel as related to the school's vision or strategic plan.

            The local district identified seven core beliefs that have been proposed as central to the strategic plan and effective education.  These seven beliefs were operationalized in an instrument for use in assessing the degree the beliefs are held in current and future employees.  Two studies were conducted.  The first study involved initial item development and content validation procedures using administrator perspectives on the core beliefs.  The second study involved administering the survey to all school employees and examining the factorial structure of the items.  Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a parsimonious one-factor solution globally capturing all seven core belief areas with the factor explaining 42.5% of correlation matrix (15 items).

           Implications for use of the instrument in the current district were discussed, as well as possibilities for the current process to be used as a model for other districts attempting to quantitatively operationalize the key beliefs in their strategic plans.

Chair: Thelma J. Roberson, The University of Southern Mississippi

Do Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, and Good Study Skills Equal Academic Success?

Geraldine Smith‑Mallette, Linda W. Morse, Christy Derby, Jimmy Henderson, Jeanette Roberts, and Ronica Arnold, Mississippi State University

            Though literature has supported the idea that self-efficacy, self-regulation, and good study habits enhance one's chances of academic success, little research exists that has looked at these three aspects collectively. This study investigated how college undergraduate students perceived their own sense of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and study skills as they related to their academic success as a whole.

            Participants included 110 undergraduates from a variety of majors who completed a 40-item questionnaire consisting of measures assessing their self-efficacy, self-regulation skills, and study skills. The 40-item questionnaire was answered on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 - definitely disagree to 5 - definitely agree, with 3 being neutral. The questionnaire was composed of questions about study skills, self-efficacy, and self-regulation skills.

           Academic success was defined by the student's grade point average (GPA). At the .01 alpha level, using the Pearson correlation, the correlation between GPA and self-regulation skills was statistically significant.  The correlation between GPA and self -efficacy was also statistically significant. However, the correlation between GPA and study skills was not statistically significant at the .01 alpha level.

            This study offered further evidence that self-regulation and self-efficacy are positively associated with academic success.  Although good study skills are usually associated with academic success, no evidence existed to support an association between study skills and academic success for this particular group of undergraduate students.

Practical Prediction of Student Engagement in a College Self-Paced Introductory Psychology Course: The Role of Motivational Orientation, Learning Strategies, Procrastination, and Perceptions of Daily Hassles

Ronald L. Skidmore and Francis H. Osborne, Morehead State University

            This study examined the practicality and reliability of using a select group of self-report measures assessing motivational orientation, learning strategies, procrastination, and perceptions of daily hassles to predict student engagement and relative performance in a self-paced introductory psychology course.  Research has shown these factors to be associated with academic success and of concern to instructors and students alike.  Economical and reliable surveys that permit effective assessment of these factors would be invaluable for predicting of student course engagement and determining subsequent intervention.   A total of four surveys purporting to measure the constructs listed above were chosen.  A demographic survey was also administered.

            The course utilized a local area network of personal computers to administer surveys, unit practice quizzes and mastery tests, course tutorials, and final examinations.  Students who agreed to participate in the study were administered the surveys during the first three class periods of the semester. The course was self-paced, with students determining their rate of engagement.  A criterion level of course points determined course completion.   Data were collected on 149 students, 122 of whom completed the course. 

            For students completing the course, the degree of engagement was determined relevant to the number of days to course completion. A median-split was used to determine early-finish versus late-finish groups.  Non-finishers comprised the third group. Discriminant function analysis to discover and interpret combinations of predictors determined that group membership could be reliably predicted from the set of chosen surveys.  Implications for utilization of these surveys to predict student engagement and performance, as well as instructor intervention, were discussed.

Unsuccessful Study Habits in Foreign Language Courses

Phillip D. Bailey, University Of Central Arkansas, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Although some students excel in learning a foreign language, many students fail to achieve their desired levels of proficiency. In an attempt to understand this phenomenon, researchers have investigated several factors that may affect language learning. 

            Research has shown that the most successful learners are those who use learning strategies that tend to be the most optimal for second-language acquisition.  Because learning strategy use is a component of study habits, it is likely that the latter would be related to foreign-language achievement.  Indeed, as Oxford (1989) noted, language learning strategy research has suffered from an overemphasis on metacognitive and cognitive strategies, that are admittedly very important, at the expense of other strategy types that are also very useful (p. 2). Surprisingly, however, little is known about which study habits distinguish successful from unsuccessful language learners. This was the purpose of the present investigation.

            Participants were 219 college students, from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, who were enrolled in Spanish, French, German, or Japanese classes.  A canonical discriminant analysis (F[6, 117], p < .0001; canonical R = .92) revealed that, compared to their high-performing counterparts, students with the lowest levels of foreign-language achievement tended to report that: (1) they frequently include a lot of irrelevant or unimportant information in their notes, (2) when they have difficulty with their assignments, they do not seek help from their instructor, (3) they put their lecture notes away after taking the test and never consult them again, (4) they have to be in the mood before attempting to study, (5) they have a tendency to doodle or daydream when they are trying to study, and (6) they do not consult a dictionary concerning the meanings of words that they do not understand. The implications of these findings were discussed.

Session 1.4 READING ACHIEVEMENT Riverside East

Chair: Dennis C. Zuelke, Jacksonville State University

Effectiveness of the Alabama Reading Initiative

Dana Lynn Key, The University Of Alabama

            Research and reform mandates in education confirmed that of the numerous problems besetting education, those that concerned reading comprehension and retention were among the most serious and significant.  This study examined the implications for higher academic success for students when classroom teachers were trained in the research-based strategies taught in the Alabama Reading Initiative training.  Specifically, the study looked at the following components that were integral for that training and critical for implementation in the classroom: (1) reading in the content area, (2) writing in the content area, (3) comprehension strategies, and (3) reading and writing connection.

            The study sought to answer the following questions: (1) How can teachers trained in the ARI better identify and intervene when students have difficulty with reading and writing? and (2) What curriculum modifications and research-based strategies work best to raise the academic success of students who have a history of failure in school?

            This study covered approximately 15 months with 25-30 teacher participants.  The researcher was part of the ARI training team and served on the committee for revision of the modules for ARI.  The data were collected from: (1) field-notes,  (2) evaluation summaries, (3) interviews, and (4) document analysis of student test scores.  The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methodology, and member checks, triangulation, and peer debriefing were used to ensure credibility and validity.  The themes that emerged were related to:  (1) the profound difference in test scores that the ARI made for all students, (2) the need for additional inservice and training for teachers, and (3) the evaluation of the program after it was in place is essential.  The findings suggested implications for teachers, teacher educators, and curriculum coordinators.

Evaluation of Year 2 of the Alabama Reading Initiative

Marcia R. O'Neal and Scott W. Snyder, University of Alabama at Birmingham, and Mary W. Spor, University of Alabama at Huntsville

            The Alabama Reading Initiative (ARI) is a statewide effort whose goal is 100% literacy for public school students.  The program targets beginning reading, expansion of reading power, and intervention for struggling readers, and emphasizes implementation of research-based reading instruction at participating schools.  The ARI model is unique in that it includes all students in K-12, requires 85% faculty participation, as well as principal participation and leadership in summer professional development, and emphasizes partnerships with professional educators in institutions of higher education.  ARI was implemented in 16 schools in 1998-1999 and was expanded to include 81 schools in 1999-2000.

            Evaluation of ARI Year 2 addressed six questions:  (1) To what extent are ARI schools making progress toward 100% literacy?  (2) Which ARI schools are making progress toward 100% literacy and which are not?  (3) What factors are related to school outcomes?  (4) Why are some ARI schools making more progress than others?  (5) To what extent are the elements of ARI reflected in preservice teacher education programs throughout Alabama?  and (6) What ARI factors are related to change in preservice teacher education programs?

            Both achievement and survey data were used to answer the evaluation questions.  Among the findings were the following:  (1) improvements in Stanford 9 NCEs for reading subtests averaged 1.05 for the original 16 schools and .28 for the 65 schools that began in 1999-2000, (2) ARI schools decreased their population of "struggling readers" by as much as 10% and increased their percentage of "grade-level readers" more than non-ARI schools, (3) about 75% of ARI schools made at least small gains on reading subtests, (4) factors differentiating higher-performing from lower-performing ARI schools included principal leadership, hands-on reading specialists, and deeply involved higher education partners; and (5) higher education faculty reported changes in course content, its incorporation of new reading standards into course syllabi, and improved preservice teaching experiences.

 
Kentucky’s School Report Card and Fourth-Grade Reading Scores

Beverly M. Klecker, Morehead State University

            Reading, a fundamental subject taught in elementary schools, is the key to subsequent learning. In Kentucky, assessment of reading, with the school as the unit of analysis, first occurs in the fourth grade.  These scores are used to improve the school’s reading program.  In 1999, a new Kentucky law required that each district and public school produce and distribute school report cards to the parents of each child.  In addition to reporting the school’s scores on the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System (CATS), the school report card presents information about the school. This exploratory, descriptive study was designed to investigate relationships between the elementary school’s reading scores and information sent to the parents via the school’s report card.

            The variables reported on the school report card sent to parents are:  (1) school size, (2) CATS scores, (3) attendance, (4) retention, (5) teacher certification, (6) teacher major, (7) teacher participation in professional development, (8) teacher’s master’s degree, (9) teaching, (10) per-pupil expenditure, (11) pupil-teacher ratio, and (12) number of students with parent attending teacher conference. Research reporting relationships between some of these variables (e.g., school size, Holland & Gladden, 2001) and achievement was reviewed.

            Fourth-grade reading school-level Kentucky Core Content Tests (part of CATS) scores were obtained from the Kentucky Department of Education. Schools with scores in the top 10% and bottom 10% were selected for the study.  School report card information was also obtained from KDE for these schools (N=20).  Descriptive tables were prepared, and chi-square goodness-of-fit tests were used to explore differences between variables. 

            A statistically significant difference between schools with fourth-grade reading scores in the top 10% and schools with scores in the bottom 10% was found with the attendance data only.

Session 1.5 MENTORING NEW FACULTY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (Symposium) Riverside West

Organizer: Gypsy A. Abbott, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Promoting Publishing Through Mentoring

Karen Dahle and Betty Higdon, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Building A Sense Of Community Through Mentoring

Janice Patterson, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Defining The Mentoring Relationship

Loucrecia Collins, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Lessons Learned

Mary Nix, University of Alabama at Birmingham

            Retention of new faculty in higher education has been a topic of discussion for the last two decades. Although many mentoring programs have been described, few appeared to be as comprehensive as was desired in the UAB School of Education. Thus, the mentoring program developed addressed the goal of fostering and promoting the development of the skills necessary for new faculty members to be successful in obtaining tenure.

            In this symposium, the results of the innovative mentoring program for new faculty in the UAB School of Education were described. This mentoring program was based on a review of the literature regarding successful practices in mentoring in higher education. Factors such as regular meeting, specific goals, and clear expectations of mentors and mentees were included in the plan. In addition, the issue of "What is in it for me?,” or "Just one more thing to do" was addressed through the Dean of the School of Education providing a stipend for mentors that could be used for travel or in other needed ways. It was interesting that the majority of mentors indicated that they did not wish to use the stipend available. The mentors state, however, that the fact that the project was strongly supported by the dean's office had a positive effect on their attitudes toward participation.

            In this program, an innovative dimension was added. A research design for studying the process of mentoring that was occurring was developed. Mentees and mentors kept field notes regarding their experiences in the areas of expectations, accomplishments, building relationships, building a sense of community, and publishing. The research design specified that the field notes from the actual mentoring process would be analyzed and that the results would be submitted for publication and presentation. Data were collected between January 2001 and May 2001. These data were analyzed using qualitative methodology based on phenomenology. The intent was to capture and describe the experiences of mentees and mentors as they participated in the program.

            This approach to mentoring was unique in that new faculty are mentored through the process of gathering and analyzing data, as well as submitting the data for presentation and publication. Each of the papers comprising this symposium addressed the issues identified in the research design.  The papers presented findings from the implementation of this program, as well as lessons learned.

10:30 A.M. - 11:20 A.M.

Chair: Mary Nix, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Are Teacher Perceptions Aligned with Actual Classroom Observations Involving Cooperative Learning Activities in School Reform Models?

Allison P. Potter, The University of Memphis

            The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between teacher perceptions of their instructional method in the classroom and the method of instruction actually observed. In a study involving an urban school in the United States that was in the process of implementing cooperative learning methods in the classroom, it was noted that the struggles teachers at the school faced when trying to implement a teaching method different than what they believed (or had been trained) in was reflected in the quality of the students' activities in the classroom.  Another study noted that classroom observations of teachers involved in implementation of new student-centered methods of teaching revealed that teachers partly continue to use their old direct instruction methods in the classroom.  Teachers may think that they are acting more as a facilitator in guiding student-centered activities when, in fact, actual observations do not reflect this.

            This present study addressed two key questions:  (1) Are there differences between observed classroom activities and teacher reported classroom activities of cooperative learning?  and (2) Also, if there are differences, what are some of the reasons for the differences?  Teacher responses (N=455) to the item, "Students in my class spend much of their time working in cooperative learning teams," were taken from the School Restructuring Teacher Questionnaire© instrument.  This was compared with the amount of cooperative/collaborative learning instructional orientation observed using the School Observation Measure Data Summary©.  Teacher comments from Teacher Focus Group summaries were also examined.  The findings showed that while 77% of the teachers agreed that students in their classroom spent much of their time working in cooperative learning groups, it was only observed 49% of the time.  One key implication of this study was for teacher training and/or mentoring in instructional methods before and during the implementation process.

Preservice Teachers' Perspectives Concerning Constructivist Experiences in Content Area and Professional Education Courses

Timothy L. Carter and Rebecca Shopfner, Arkansas Tech University

            The constructivist view of learning has received increased positive emphasis within the last two decades in education (e.g., Brandt & Perkins, 2000; Mayer, 1998).  However, Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog's (1982) and Strike and Posner's (1992) research has suggested that for this new conceptual understanding of learning to be fully accepted and implemented the stakeholders involved must first experience the four critical steps of conceptual change. 

            Based on their conceptual change model, the present study examined the perspectives of preservice teachers pertaining to the use of constructivist methodologies in their content area courses versus a six-hour professional education course.  The sample consisted of 17 preservice secondary teachers from a state university in a rural town in northwestern Arkansas.  Data were collected at the beginning of a scheduled class period using two 10-question Likert surveys, based on Beller's (1998) work, with responses ranging from "1" meaning "Never" to "9" meaning "Always."  On each survey, Likert statements were identical in content.  One survey queried students about their "constructivist" experiences prior to this professional education course, and the other survey queried students about their "constructivist" experiences during the course.  Each of the 10 items was statistically compared from the two surveys using a paired samples t‑test with the alpha level set at .05.   

            Results indicated that scores for each of the 10 items were statistically significantly different (p < .05).  The results suggested that students may not be experiencing ample opportunities throughout their teacher preparation to experience conceptual change regarding their views of learning.  By not providing these experiences, future educators may not experience the final critical step of the conceptual change model, and educational change may not be realized as readily.  

Anissa Harris, University of Louisiana at Monroe

            Pursued by parents, teachers, and employers across the world, cooperation is a richly valued commodity in 21st century homes, schools, and businesses. Many educators, therefore, have adjusted to the social aspect of learning and have applied cooperative learning strategies, at least in principle, to classroom instruction (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1998b).  Heralded by educational researchers as an essential tool for effective teaching, cooperative learning has fast become common in the classroom (Slavin, 1999).

            The purpose of this review was to investigate the components of cooperative learning and discuss variations in strategies and effectiveness from a theoretical perspective by analyzing current publications from the cornerstone theorists and implementers of this teaching strategy. The model's application to students with learning difficulties and students with high achievement was discussed in a section on implementation and evaluation of the model where the researcher relates the perspective of teachers and several studies on the quality use of cooperative learning in the classroom.  Thus, this review concentrated on the current implementation of cooperative learning at the elementary, secondary, and college levels and discussed the effectiveness, appropriateness to content area, application to students with special needs, benefits, and variations of the strategies in the hope that readers could develop a better understanding of the appropriate use of this model. 

Chair: Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

Marie Miller‑Whitehead, Tennessee Valley Educators for Excellence

            The study examined the Year 2000 Alabama State Report Card indicators to identify predictors for student academic achievement at both the district and school level for the 128 school districts and 1272 public schools in Alabama to provide local, state, and federal agencies with information for making decisions about schools.  The two measures for student achievement used in the analysis, performance grade and SAT average, were provided on the state report card for each school district and school.

           Variables included in the analysis were system type (city or county); number of students; percentage of students on free and reduced meals; percentage of average daily attendance, per pupil expenditure; dropout percentages from 1999; school district, local, state, and federal revenues; and percentage of system and school employees with bachelor's, master's, and six-year doctoral licensure.

            Results of hierarchical regression models indicated that for both school districts and schools, poverty had a negative effect on both SAT averages and performance grades. Models were more powerful for predicting SAT averages than performance grades, but results indicated that city school districts were more likely to have both higher SAT averages and performance grades than were county districts, and for both city and county school districts the percent of AA administrative personnel and percent of local revenue had a statistically significant positive effect on student achievement.  City districts had significantly higher percentages of local funding than county districts.

            At the school level, higher enrollment had a negative effect on student achievement, while higher percentage average daily attendance and higher percentage of faculty with the master's degree had a significant positive effect on student achievement.

Conclusions were that higher percentages of local funding and higher percentages of administrative licensures at the district level were most highly correlated to higher student SAT averages and performance grades.

Comparing School Finance Equity Among Mid‑South States

Mary Hughes and Gary W. Ritter, University of Arkansas

            As the Arkansas legislature and Department of Education wrestle with the recent court order to modify the state's system of funding schools, it is important to consider school funding equity in Arkansas and the other states in the mid-south: Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee.

            The challenge in doing comparative analyses among states with regard to school finance equity revolves around different methods and categories in reporting school finance data.  However, this problem is solved to some extent by the National Center for Education Statistics, that publishes annually the Common Core of Data (or CCD) that provides detailed data (including funding data) for all schools, districts, and states in the United States. 

            This paper employed standard measures of school finance equity to describe and compare the level of school funding equity for each of the mid-south states throughout the 1990s.

Influence of School Board Member on State Legislation

W. Keith Christy and Larry McNeal, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            A survey of Arkansas school board members was conducted from July through September 2000. The survey of 1801 school board members served as a major purpose to identify specific legislative issues that the Arkansas School Boards Association would include in its legislative agenda for the 2001 legislative session.

            The results of the study indicated that the greatest concerns centered on:  (1) financial issues at the state and federal levels, (2) significant concerns about education at the local level, (3) policy issues at the state and federal level, and (4) board member involvement in state and federal policy making.

            The survey was conducted in two parts:  an individual response and a composite board of education response. The survey response of the boards was 71%, and the individual response rate was 61%.

            The data revealed that the greatest concern to local school boards and their members was finance related in that local school boards as collective bodies believed that receiving adequate funds and being able to pay competitive salaries were their greatest immediate concerns. Another indicator to support funding as an important issue was the individual board members’ identifying the most significant long-term challenges facing school boards as that of an insufficient investment at the local level. Tied to this insufficient funding support was the challenge of hiring and retaining teachers inasmuch as the Arkansas salaries are below national and regional averages.

            The significance of this research was the outcome of the work of the 2001 legislative session. Governor Huckabee placed educational funding and, specifically, a raise of teacher salaries, as the foremost item to his legislative agenda. The legislature responded with a significant increase of funding directed at an increase of $3,000 to the base salary of teachers to occur over the next two years.

            The results of this survey were the cornerstone of setting the legislative agenda of the Arkansas School Boards Association. The actions of the 2001 Arkansas Legislature indicated a positive response to the views of Arkansas school board members.

Chair: Jane Nell Luster, Louisiana State University

Moral Reasoning, Attributional Complexity, and Social Status of Gifted Children

Antony D. Norman, Western Kentucky University

            Although heightened emotional and moral sensitivity is one of the most common characteristics attributed to the gifted, very little research has been conducted in this area.  This study examined the relationships among moral reasoning, attributional complexity, and social status in gifted children.

            Data were collected on 300 gifted children entering 7th through 12th grades who attended two summer programs for the gifted.  To measure moral reasoning ability, the Defining Issues Test (DIT) was administered.  To measure attributional complexity, the preference for complex rather than simple explanations for events and behavior, the Attributional Complexity Scale was administered.   Measures of gifted students' social status were obtained by using two peer status instruments, peer ratings, and peer nominations.  Based on these vehicles, students were classified as popular, neglected, rejected, or average.  

            Findings regarding the moral reasoning ability of these gifted children compared to age norms provided in the DIT manual were revealed.  Further, findings regarding relationships among moral reasoning ability, attributional complexity, and social status were revealed and discussed.  The presentation concluded with a discussion of implications for educating gifted children.

What I Hate About Being Gifted

Eileen Talento‑Miller, Mississippi State University

            The word “gifted” could be used to describe any birthday girl or boy who is opening a present. The experience of intellectual giftedness is analogous in that the gifts at times may induce the same kind of thrill that comes from opening a much wanted toy, while at other times the gifts may produce the same type of chagrin that comes from discovering that one has received socks. Current research was reviewed that described the negative aspects of giftedness from the point of view of participants who have been identified as gifted. Among the topics examined were the issues of perfectionism, expectations of others, social adjustment, and underachievement, as well as the differences in the difficulties of gifted children versus gifted adults, and the differences found among “moderately” gifted individuals versus “highly” gifted individuals. The implications for the need for counseling tailored to the special needs of the gifted population, as well as the efficacy of different types of special programming in addressing these concerns, were also addressed.

Multiyear Analysis of Gifted Education Programming for Disadvantaged Students

Deborah J. Abell, Morehead State University

            Students who come from economically disadvantaged families often perform poorly on the standardized tests used to identify gifted students. A need exists to establish a method of identifying economically disadvantaged gifted students that does not penalize them because of poor performance on standardized norm-referenced tests.

            Affluent white students consistently score higher on traditional norm-referenced tests that are used to make gifted education placement decisions (Barstow & Baldwin, 1988). Research indicates that giftedness is evenly distributed across race, gender, and ethnic groups (Eby & Smutney, 1990; Smith, Le Rose, & Clasen, 1991).  Are we to believe that giftedness is not evenly distributed across socioeconomic status? Gifted economically disadvantaged students represent an untapped potential for excellence in school systems across the nation (Maker, 1989; Patton,  Prillaman, & VanTassel-Baska, 1990; Richert, 1987).

            The education coordinator for gifted and talented students at each school was surveyed to obtain data. The survey included information on students identified for gifted programming categorized by sex, qualification for free/reduced lunch, race, and presence of disability.

            The study provided chi-square and descriptive statistical analyses of the percentage of students identified for gifted education programs who participated in the federal free/reduced lunch program, including information regarding sex, race, and presence of disability.  The subjects were 2000 students enrolled in three middle schools.  Significantly more students who are identified as gifted qualify for free/reduced lunch in 2001 compared to the beginning of the program.

            The conclusion reached was that teachers who have received specific training in the identification of these hard-to-identify populations were better able to identify economically disadvantaged gifted students after training, and the percentages of economically disadvantaged students identified as gifted have increased significantly.

Chair: Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University/Lincoln Parish (Louisiana) Schools

Effect of Gender, Achievement in Mathematics, and Grade Level on Attitudes Toward Mathematics

Martha Tapia, Berry College, and George E. Marsh II, The University of Alabama

            The effects of gender, math achievement, and grade level on attitudes toward mathematics were examined by use of an inventory, Attitudes Toward Mathematics Instrument. Subjects were 803 bilingual, middle and high school students. The data were analyzed using a multivariate factorial model with four factors of Mathematics Attitudes as dependent variables (self-confidence, value, motivation, and enjoyment of mathematics) and three independent variables (gender, math achievement, and grade level). A two-way significant interaction of achievement by grade level was found.  The interaction was found to be significant for value, motivation, and enjoyment of mathematics at all grade levels.  "A" students scored higher than all other students on the three factors from 7th through 10th grades and in motivation in students in 11th and 12th grades. For value, failing students were lowest in 7th through 10th grades. A similar relationship of letter grade to motivation was found in the hierarchy for "B to D" students in 7th and 8th grades. For enjoyment, failing students were lowest in 7th and 8th grades, B and C students scored higher than D and F students in 9th and 10th grades, and A and B students were highest in 11th and 12th grades.

The Relationship Between Social Promotion in the Middle School and Academic Achievement in a High School Math Class

Lana M. Page and Patrick Kariuki, Milligan College

            The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) indicated that national (U.S.) math scores were below international averages. Social promotion was identified as one possible factor contributing to poor mathematical achievement. No conclusive evidence existed to support or refute the practice of social promotion.  Further study was needed to determine its effectiveness.  Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between social promotion in the middle school and academic achievement in the high school math class.

           Students’ permanent records were reviewed to determine which students had been promoted without mastery in middle school. The sample consisted of 30 seniors from a northeastern Tennessee high school who were promoted without mastery in the middle school. Their academic achievement in the high school math class was recorded.  The relationship between social promotion and mathematical academic achievement was analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation. Similarly, the relationship between math academic achievement and overall high school academic achievement was analyzed using the Pearson product moment correlation.  The difference in male and female mathematical academic achievement was analyzed using an independent t-test. Also, the difference between the number of times a student was promoted in the middle school was analyzed using t-test for paired sample means. 

            The results indicated a significant negative correlation between social promotion and high school math academic achievement.  A strong correlation existed between math academic achievement and overall academic achievement at the high school level.  There was no significant difference between the mathematical academic achievement of males and females. Also, no significant difference was found between the number of times a student was promoted in middle school and high school math achievement.  The study suggested that students who have been socially promoted in middle school performed poorly in high school math classes. 

A Follow-Up Study of Students Eligible for a Gifted Math Program

Betty K. Wood, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

This follow-up study of students who were eligible to participate in the Gifted Math Program (GMP) at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock compared participants and non-participants in several areas.  Among the areas were:  (1) quantitative scores on ACT/SAT, (2) college major/career choice, and (3) personal benefits of the program.

Studies of programs for gifted and talented students show that there are benefits to special programs for gifted students.  Studies of highly intelligent children contribute to our understanding of the many forms of giftedness and the type of intervention necessary to develop high-level performance.  These students need times when they can experience the satisfaction and joy of significant learning.

            Of the 2697 students who were eligible for the GMP from 1984-1989, 1000 names were randomly selected and questionnaire packets were sent to them.  Of the 100 people responding to the questionnaire, 50% had participated in the GMP, 50% had not participated, 47% were males, 53% were females, 87% were Caucasian, 7% were African American, and 4% classified themselves as Other.  Nine female and five male participants, one female and four male nonparticipants, and nine parents were interviewed on the telephone. Both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis were used to describe the results.

Session 2.5 STATISTICS Riverside West

Chair: Gail Weems, The University of Memphis

Methods for Correctly Performing ANCOVA with Multilevel Analysis When the Homogeneity of Regression Assumption is Not Met

J. Kyle Roberts, University of North Texas

            Although the ANCOVA method has become widely used and accepted in modern statistical applications, Henson (1999) has noted that, continually, researchers neglect to check the assumption of homogeneity of regression and incorrectly model a compensatory rivalry between groups.  This often happens because researchers are including covariates in a model when testing for differences between intact groups rather than completely randomized groups.  In many occasions, covariates need to be included in the OVA model to test for mean differences, but methods for controlling for differences in regression weights are either not available to researchers or are not utilized.  While normal OVA methods cannot control for these differences, recent developments in statistics and technology have enabled researchers to model individual (rather than collective) regression coefficients for intact groups while still testing for differences on the primary dependent variable in the OVA model. 

            The purpose of this paper was to show the utility of modeling random slope coefficients in the ANCOVA model through multilevel and hierarchical linear modeling (MLM and HLM).  Utilizing a heuristic dataset that violated the homogeneity of regression assumption, this paper illustrated multilevel procedures with both SAS and MLwiN software packages.  The presentation, however, illustrated just the MLwiN software package.  Because multilevel modeling is a statistical procedure that is not readily known to most researchers, methods for conducting multilevel procedures were illustrated during the presentation with the MLwiN software package.  Resources for conducting multilevel analysis were also distributed at the presentation.  Graphing displays also showed exactly what was happening with the data by graphing residuals of the regression coefficients and then modeling differences in these coefficients.

Regression Diagnostics in Educational Research

Jesus Tanguma, University of Houston at Clear Lake

           Linear regression models are commonly used in educational research settings to help explain and predict subjects' performance. However, blindly applying a regression model without regard to its assumptions and goodness of fit may lead to errors in inference. Thus, it is imperative that researchers graphically and mathematically scrutinize their data before computing any statistics (e.g., applying a regression model). A relatively new technique that can assist the researcher identify influential data points is regression diagnostics.

           Six commonly used diagnostics procedures (partial regression plots, the hat matrix, studentized residuals, DFITSi, Cook's Di and DFBETASij) for identifying influential data points were illustrated by means of hypothetical examples. Also, where appropriate, cutoff values were suggested.

           Partial regression plots are the multivariate analog of the bivariate scatter plots typically used in simple linear regression. However, the variables plotted in the partial regression plots are residual variables.  The hat elements (hii) are indicative of the distance from Xi to the mean.  Thus, the larger the farther Xi is from the mean , the larger the hi.  Although the residuals (ei) are the primary means for detecting outliers, they may have substantially different variances. Thus, it is important to consider the magnitude of each ei relative to its standard deviation. The ratio of ei to s{ ei }is called the studentized residual.  DFITSi is a measure that is affected both by residuals and extreme values. That is, any observation with a high hi or low ei (or vice versa) will be signaled by DFITSi.   Cook's distance measures the influence of the ith case on all fitted values. Thus, if the case with the largest Cook value were removed, the estimates of the coefficients would change more than for any other case. DFBETASij is a measure of how individual coefficients are affected when a case is omitted.

Reporting Practice and Use of Exploratory Factor Analyses in Educational Research Journals

Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas, and Robert M. Capraro and Mary Margaret Capraro, Texas A&M University

            It is often not understood that implicit within all classical parametric analyses is a principal components analysis.  This truism suggests the importance of factor analysis implicitly within statistics and explicitly as a method.  The goal of factor analysis itself is typically parsimony and is often used to explain a larger set of j measured variables with a smaller set of k latent constructs. These more parsimonious constructs can be used as variables in subsequent analyses and are typically viewed as causing the responses to the observed variables.  Thanks to the advent of technology, factor analysis is now frequently employed. 

            Given the proliferation of factor analysis applications in the literature, the purpose of the present paper was to examine the utilization of factor analysis in current published research.  Notwithstanding ease of analysis because of computers, the appropriate use of factor analysis requires a series of thoughtful researcher judgments.  These judgments directly impact results and interpretations.

            Specifically, the presenters examined several education journals and noted across studies (1) the decisions made while conducting exploratory factor analyses and (2) the information reported from the analyses. Accordingly, the paper addressed the current status of factor analytic decisions and reporting practices in education journals. The study also replicated a similar study that centered more on psychology journals.

            Results indicated egregious errors of commission and omission regarding factor analysis use and interpretation.  Examples of errors included poor strategies for determining the number of factors to retain and failure to report and interpret factor structure coefficients when using an oblique rotation.  At times, the extraction method and rotation strategy were not noted. This paper included in discussion other errors of usage and reporting and presented recommendations for the improved use of factor analysis in educational research.

11:30 A.M. - 12:20 P.M.

Chair:   Jean Newman Clark, University of South Alabama

The Validity and Reliability of the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory II

Nicola A. Conners, Leanne Whiteside-Mansell, and Angela L. White, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

            The ability to accurately assess the child-rearing attitudes of parents or other individuals working with children is important to the success of child abuse prevention efforts.  The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory II (AAPI-II) with low-income, rural parents.  The AAPI-II is a 40-item questionnaire designed to assess the child-rearing attitudes of adolescents and adults, including parents, prospective parents, and individuals who work with children.  The questionnaire was designed to identify attitudes and beliefs consistent with those of known child abusers, and thus provided an index of risk for abuse or neglect.  Information on the reliability and validity of the AAPI was limited, and the appropriateness of the questionnaire for certain populations was unknown.

            The sample for this study included 170 low-income parents whose preschool children were enrolled in Head Start programs in rural Arkansas and who were participants in the Starting Early Starting Smart research study.  The AAPI-II was administered during a home interview that also included other assessments of parenting style and behavior. 

            Alpha reliability coefficients were computed for the full scale and each of the five AAPI-II subscales for the full sample, and separately for parents with different levels of education.  The overall alpha was .86 for the full sample, with subscales ranging from .65 to .82.  Similar results were found for parents with and without college education.  Confirmatory factor analysis was performed and coefficient H was computed, and the results offer support for the factor structure proposed by the developer.  Relationships between the AAPI-II scales and theoretically-related measures of parenting style and behavior were examined, and significant correlations were found, ranging in size from moderate (.23) to strong (.51).   Overall, findings offered support for the use of the AAPI-II with low-income, rural parents.

The Validity and Reliability of the Parenting Styles Typology

Leanne Whiteside‑Mansell, Nicola A. Conners, and Danya Lee Johnson, University of Arkansas for Medical Science

           Developmental psychologists are almost in universal agreement that children from preschool to adolescents fair better when raised by authoritative parents than children raised by parents with other parenting styles.  However, classifying a parent’s style is difficult as few cost-efficient measures exist, particularly for the preschool child.

            The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of a paper assessment of parenting style developed by Greenberger and Goldberg (1988) in a sample of low-income, rural parents of preschoolers.  This study examined two surveys to assess parental types of discipline (Harsh Control, Firm/Responsive Control, and Lax Control) and demands for maturity (independence, self-control, prosocial).  The resulting summative scores and the parenting style classifications were investigated.

            The sample for this study included 199 low-income parents whose preschool children were enrolled in Head Start programs in rural Arkansas and who were participants in the Starting Early Starting Smart research study.  The data were collected during a home interview that also included other assessments of parenting style and behavior.  Seventy-two percent of families were classified into permissive (41%), authoritative (20%), authoritarian (26%), and a mixed category (30%).

            Alpha reliability coefficients were computed for the summary scores with values ranging from .63 to .88.  Reliability estimates were computed from 42 tests-retests (two-week interval), and the reliability coefficient H was computed (using CFA).Confirmatory factor analysis was performed, and support  for the factor structure proposed by the developer and cautions were discussed.

            Support for the validity of the parenting scales and style classifications were examined using theoretically related measures of parenting attitudes, behavior, and family characteristics.  Correlation coefficients ranged from .15 to .54 in predicted patterns.  Overall, findings offered support for the use of the summative scores and limited support for parenting style classification.

Attributions Toward Violence of Male Juvenile Delinquents: A Concurrent Mixed‑Methodological Analysis

Christine E. Daley, Muscogee County School District, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Violence among youth has reached epidemic proportions.  Despite considerable research, however, we still do not understand why adolescents become involved in violent acts.  Thus, this study investigated male juvenile delinquents' causal attributions they make for others' behavior, and the salient pieces of information they utilize in arriving at their attributions. Participants were 82 male juvenile offenders, selected via an a priori power analysis, who were drawn randomly from the population of juveniles incarcerated at a correctional facilities located in a large southeastern state.

            A six-stage, concurrent, mixed-methodological analysis, utilizing both qualitative and quantitative data-analytic techniques, revealed that the juvenile offenders committed violent attributional errors nearly 53% of the time. Black juvenile offenders were more likely to commit violence attributional errors than were their white counterparts. Also, a positive relationship was found between the number of prior arrests and the number of violence attributional errors.  A phenomenological analysis revealed the following seven themes that arose from juveniles' reasons for their causal attributions: self-control, violation of rights, provocation, irresponsibility, poor judgment, fate, and conflict resolution. A combination of these themes was related to age, ethnicity, and number of prior arrests. An exploratory factor analysis revealed that the seven themes fell into four meta-themes. Finally, an ipsative/cluster analysis identified three profiles of delinquents based on their violence attribution reasons. Implications were discussed.

Chair:  Larry R. Dickerson, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

On‑Line Teaching: A Framework for Success

Candace H. Lacey, Barry University, and Amany Saleh, Arkansas State University

            On-line instruction is rapidly gaining popularity at college and on campuses throughout the world. Once the sole niche of store-front diplols, advances in technology, as well as student demand, have made everyone sit up and take notice. More and more university administrators are requiring departments to put courses, and in some cases entire programs, on-line.  The faculty members are on the front line of this technology invasion and the faculty members must face the daily challenges of a delivery system that does not always provide what it promises.

Both of the presenters have had extensive experience in teaching on-line courses. Grounded in this experience base, the presenters proposed that a framework needs to be considered when making decisions regarding the use of on-line courses. Central to this framework were five areas for consideration:  (1) what courses are appropriate for on-line delivery, (2) to what extent should the technology be used to support classroom teaching, (3) what training is required/available for the instructor, (4) what technical support is available, and (5) what level of technology proficiency should students possess to enroll in an on-line class.

            Experience with teaching students as far away as Indonesia and as close as the dorm across the street has led the presenters to believe that there is indeed a place for on-line technology in the higher education classroom. However, these decisions should be guided by a framework that provides both knowledge and understanding.

Integrating Four Courses into a Twelve-Credit-Hour Block of Instruction in an On-Line Format as Part of a Master's Degree Program in Educational Leadership

Jack J. Klotz, Warren G. Ortloff, and Thelma J. Roberson, The University of Southern Mississippi

            This presentation detailed specific strategies on how to reformat traditional course work into an integrated block of instruction for on-line delivery.  Specifics were provided detailing sequential steps followed by a team of professors working together to replicate the instructional components associated with traditional delivery methodologies in a Master's Program in Educational Leadership.  Information was presented regarding:  (1)  how four traditional courses were integrated into one block of instruction to be delivered over the Fall and Spring semester, (2) the specific training and support needs of professors charged with such delivery, (3) how to conduct planning meetings, (4) how to work with Continuing Education and Technology departments, (5) how to identify objectives and activities that lend themselves to the on-line environment and strategies to deal effectively with those areas that are best addressed on-site, (6) how to select the most appropriate technology to support the identified objectives, (7) suggested strategies for evaluation of program design and delivery, and (8) a comparison of student performance of students participating in the on-line format with those participating in an on-site delivery format.

Confronting Design Problems in Developing On-Line Courses in Higher Education

Thelma J. Roberson and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

            This paper presented ideas and viable solutions to problems that may arise when developing and implementing on-line courses.  The authors described their personal experiences with developing two sections of a team-taught, on-line course including the problems that they encountered and the solutions that they discovered.  Issues addressed in this paper included: (1) training and support needs of students and professors, (2) problems with using AOL, (3) differences in synchronous and asynchronous environments, (4) selection of technological components that fit the objectives of the course, (5) syllabus development and how to trouble-shoot when problems arise, (6) overcoming technology problems, (7) time zone considerations, (8) international server problems, and (9) dealing with firewall protection.

            The paper also provided student reflections regarding the students’ positive and negative reactions to this on-line experience.  Former students were invited to participate in the presentation of this paper via an Internet link, that made it possible for the audience to interact with students and ask questions regarding their impression of this delivery option.

Chair: Jennifer Good, Auburn University

The Graduate Student Luncheon is sponsored by the Graduate Student Advisory Committee, and is open to all graduate students registered for the annual meeting.

12:30 P.M. - 1:20 P.M.

Chair: Bobby J. Franklin, Louisiana Department of Education

Technology Integration by Teachers, Student Teachers, and Teacher Education Faculty in Alabama

Scott W. Snyder, Center for Educational Accountability, UAB; Stevie Ash and Shannon Parks, Alabama State Department of Education; and Feng Sun, Center for Educational Accountability

            Surveys of first-year teachers, experienced teachers, student teachers, cooperating teachers, and teacher education faculty were conducted as part of the PT3 Catalyst grant awarded to the Alabama State Department of Education.  The purposes of the surveys were to describe the baseline status of: (1) teachers’ perceptions of their technology competencies, (2) student teacher competencies in technology, and (3) the extent to which teacher education faculty implement training in integrating technology within core courses. The surveys of teachers and student teachers concerned perceptions of competence in implementing ISTE/NETS standards.  Surveys of cooperating teachers concerned perceptions of the competence of the student teachers on the technology competencies.  Surveys of teacher education faculty concerned the nature and extent to which standards are modeled, taught, and assessed as part of core courses. 

            Survey sampling involved a stratified random sample of teachers (1000 first-year teachers and 500 experienced teachers), 20 pairs of student teacher/cooperating teacher surveys distributed to each teacher education institution (600 total), and 20 faculty surveys sent to each teacher education institution to be distributed to faculty who taught core courses during the fall semester (600 total).  Response rates for teacher surveys were approximately 25%.  Rates for student teachers and higher education faculty cannot be directly determined because of variations in numbers of student teacher pairs and faculty within institution. 

            Results suggested areas of consensus across respondent groups in terms of strengths and needs.   Survey results have been used as a part of efforts within Alabama to establish technology integration expectations for graduates of teacher education programs.

Getting it Together: Using Technology as a Tool to Enhance Teaching and Learning

Linda F. Cornelious, Mississippi State University

           Technology has entered the classroom today.  No one has doubted that technology has and will continue to play a role in enhancing teaching and learning in the educational process.   The question is no longer "will" educators use technology, the question is now "how" will educators use technology.  Many schools have purchased software that includes suites for computer labs, while several others have purchased only desktop publishing software for use in higher-level courses.  However, the key word is "purchased."  The question remains, How is this software being used and who is using it?  Now that schools have the capabilities for using technology, are they capable of using it?  The purpose of this paper was to review the literature on implementing technology in schools to enhance teaching and learning problems hampering teachers from implementing technology into lesson plans, formulating technology action plans, and needed research.

           Although the appropriate role of technology in schools has yet to be clearly defined, there are basic questions to be answered when considering the use of technology in a school system. Should computers and technology be limited to the computer lab?  Should all instructors be required to implement technology into their daily lesson plans?  When and where will teachers receive training?  These questions, among others, must be answered before schools or districts can fully embrace the technology revolution. 

           This paper explored implementing technology into the core curriculum, while using software suites and desktop publishing to enhance the teaching and learning process.  The authors suggested how research could be used to assess the impact that the use of technology has made on student achievement.

The Use of Technology by Teacher Education Faculty for Problem Solving and Higher Order Thinking

Carol A. Brown, East Carolina University

Current research suggests that instructional computing be imbedded within curriculum areas for math, science, social studies, and language arts. No longer is the integration of computers an isolated skill separate from the pedagogical courses for preservice teachers. This study used self‑reported data from teacher education faculty to determine the relationship between personal knowledge levels for computers, use of computers within course activities, and familiarity with professional organizations such as the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE).

            ISTE standards for teachers were used to generate survey items sent to teacher education institutions in Arkansas. Cross tabulation and two‑way chi‑square tests were used to determine relationships among demographic variables and technology utilization.  Pearson correlation coefficients were used as an index to determine the strength and direction of relationships among the reported scores for use of strategies for higher‑level thinking and software applications such as word processing, database, and spreadsheets.

            Of the 125 Arkansas methods faculty who responded to the survey, only 42 indicated familiarity with ISTE.  Faculty reported a frequent use of word processing for special projects, and the use of the Internet for open‑ended problem solving and for gathering information on the teaching profession. There was infrequent use of database and spreadsheet applications for problem solving and higher-level thinking skills.

            Based on these outcomes, it was recommended that faculty evaluation forms include assessment of teaching strategies that use extended activities for higher-level learning, as well as data manipulation. Instruction should also include extended activities for organizing information, drawing conclusions, and making predictions. Database, spreadsheet, and Internet resources would provide the tools needed for the complex activities recommended for problem solving and the transfer of learning.

Session 4.2  THE IMPACT OF STATE TESTING ON STUDENT PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AND ACHIEVEMENT (Symposium) Salon B

Organizer: Sean W. Mulvenon, University of Arkansas

Parent's Involvement and Perceptions of Standardized Testing: How Does it Affect Student Achievement

Monica S. Zozone, University of Arkansas

Teachers Perceptions of Standardized Testing: Implications for Student Performance

Joannie Connors, University of Arkansas

Standardized Testing: Perceptions of Counselors and Principals

Antionette Thorn, University of Arkansas

Students’ Perceptions of Standardized Testing and Achievement: What are the Relationships?

Denise Lenares, University of Arkansas

           President George W. Bush signed legislation that mandates the standardized testing of all students in grades 3 - 8. This expanded testing initiative is occurring at a time when the psychological impact of standardized testing on students is also being questioned by parents’ and teachers’ groups. Numerous accounts of students demonstrating high levels of physical and emotional anxiety over standardized testing have been provided in reputable national journals such as Newsweek or Time Magazine. The anecdotal cases provided in these journals do not provide an in-depth examination of the actual impact of standardized testing on students.

            The purpose of this symposium was to present five manuscripts from a comprehensive study that surveyed students, parents, teachers, counselors, and principals regarding the perceptions and attitudes toward standardized testing. A unique aspect of this study was the perception and attitudinal data that was combined with student achievement data on the standardized test they completed at the same time period of the survey administration. The results presented in the various manuscripts from this study provided new insight to the impact of standardized testing on student psychological well-being and achievement.

            The first paper reported on surveys of 262 parents regarding their involvement and perceptions of standardized testing and the impact on student achievement. Specifically, parents were asked about their perceptions of teacher stress, student stress, test value, and their level of involvement. The responses of parents were associated with performance of their students on the standardized assessment to examine the relationship between parental attitudes and student outcomes.

            The second paper reported on surveys of 125 teachers regarding their attitudes and practices related to standardized testing programs. Specifically, teachers were asked about their perceptions of school climate and its effects on themselves and their students.  The responses of teachers were associated with performance of students in their classrooms on the standardized assessment.  

            The third paper was unique in that counselors and principals of the respective schools were surveyed regarding the climate surrounding standardized testing. In addition to questions regarding their own involvement in the testing process, the survey addressed their perceptions of the impact of standardized testing on students and teachers. 

            The fourth paper surveyed 250 fifth graders during the week of the fall Stanford Achievement Test-9th Edition. The surveys included questions measuring test anxiety, school climate, and pressure. The purpose was to research students' attitudes towards testing and how these attitudes affected academic performance on the SAT-9.    

            The final paper, "Students, Teachers, Parents, Counselors, and Administrators:  Are Their Perceptions Consistent With Reality?" integrated the findings of the first four papers, to develop recommendations or guidelines to address the issue of test anxiety in the educational system. In several papers numerous inconsistencies were identified between the perceptions of the students, teachers, parents, counselors, and administrators with actual student achievement. This paper addressed these issues and provided possible action items to help address these inconsistencies in perception and performance.

Trainer:            John R. Petry, The University of Memphis

           Opportunities and problems associated with writing and publishing articles and manuscripts were discussed. Topics included sources of ideas for research and writing, guides for effective writing, elements of style, publication sources, preparing and submitting a manuscript, ethics in authorship, understanding the publishing process, and using writing/publishing for professional development.

           Objectives of the session were to increase the awareness of opportunities to publish, raise standards for writing quality manuscripts, and establish minimum guidelines for professional growth.  This session addressed pertinent information designed to aid in the achievement of these goals.   

            Activities included a diagnosis of the basic writing skills of attendees, analysis of articles ready for submission to publications, and administration of a predictive measure for publication success.  A number of sources for publishing were presented and discussed that gave the manuscript submitters a higher chance of achieving success for acceptance.  Participants' manuscripts were evaluated for their content, style, impact on the reader, and value to the scholarly community.

           Important emphases included:  (1) knowing the audience to whom the publication is intended; (2) knowing the expectations of the editor and journal and making sure the article addressed its main point effectively; (3) having a definite message and reason for writing; (4) writing correctly and distinctly; (5) writing about subjects that the author knew;, (6) following the style of the publisher's writing, knowing editor's preferences, and using the journal's format; (7) understanding the publishing process, how journals articles have been requested, reviewed, rewritten, and accepted; (8) recognizing that the writing, reviewing, and editing processes take time; and (9) following up on every submission, calling the editor to determine status, and learning how to edit personal submissions.

* * * * Note: Bus Departs For UALR At 1:45 P.M. * * * *

1:30 P.M. - 2:20 P.M.

Organizer:            Reid J. Jones, Delta State University

Overview

            This symposium presented a program report on the origins, design, strengths, and limitations of an Academic Skills Laboratory (ASL) at a small, rural, southeastern university.  Quantitative and qualitative evidence was used to evaluate program components.  Plans for institutionalizing some program aspects were discussed.

System-Wide Origins, Background, and Initial Structure of the Academic Support Program

Nita Thornell, Delta State University

            Data were presented documenting the fact that for years many students graduating from Mississippi high schools have been under‑prepared for university work.  Recently, the use of ACT "cut‑off" scores for admissions for the state's public universities was ruled unacceptable.  As a consequence, universities began admitting students who would not have been eligible in the past.  A statewide academic support system was established with laboratories at each of eight Institutions of Higher Learning (IHL). Initially, the design for the laboratories was computer‑based with a laboratory director and part-time support from faculty.

Placement Testing and Prescriptive Activities in the Academic Support Laboratory

Joe Anderson, Delta State University

            One hundred eighty‑one students were required to participate in the ASL based on low ACT scores.  A computer‑based diagnostic testing program provided further information on Reading Comprehension, Sentence Structure, College Based Mathematics, and Elementary Algebra.  Computer exercises and classroom work provided support in each student's areas of greatest need.  Reading comprehension showed significant pre‑ and posttest improvement (F = 9.169; p < .01).  The other three areas all showed non‑significant gains that approached the p = .05 level (F's ranged from 2.075 to 3.191).

Quantitative Evaluation of the Academic Support Laboratory

Reid J. Jones and Carla Johnson, Delta State University

            Demographic information (sex, ethnicity, and educational level of parents) from participating students was shown to have significant (p <.05) associations with ACT and diagnostic pretests.   Evidence for concurrent validity of the computer‑based tests was provided by significant (p < .05) correlations with ACT scores.  Follow‑up study of the student GPA's, however, showed a mean of 1.88 out of a possible 4.0.   GPA was significantly (p < .05) associated with ACT Reading (Pearson r = .40).  Other quantitative associations were difficult to demonstrate, probably influenced by severe restrictions on the range of variation in these subjects.  For example, all of the 181 students had ACT composite scores between 12 and 21.

Discussion: Using Evaluation Information in Planning for Future Academic Support Services

John G. Thornell, Delta State University

           Information from the past three years was used to begin planning for changes in the support program.  For example, reading comprehension practice and study skills workshops have been incorporated into a required general education course at the university.  Other innovative concepts must be identified as the support program evolves.  Audience discussion of similar approaches and solutions was encouraged.

Chair: Daphne Hubbard, University of South Alabama

The Intellectual Development of White, Middle-Class, Female College Students: An Application of Women's Ways of Knowing

Jennifer B. Hennessey, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            This study investigated the extent to which the theory of intellectual development of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberg, and Tarule, outlined in their 1997 book Women’s Ways of Knowing, adequately accounted for the intellectual development of the participants interviewed.

            In Belenky’s (et al.) Women’s Ways of Knowing, a model of intellectual development taking into consideration the innate differences between men and women was developed from interviews with women.  The participants in this qualitative study were white, female, college students from middle-class families.  For the purpose of this study, social class was defined by parental education and occupation.

            Interviews were conducted with four undergraduate students following the interview protocol outlined in the book.  These students were attending traditional four-year colleges in Arkansas and Texas.  The responses were compared to Belenky’s model of intellectual development.   Themes present across all interviews were labeled for discussion purposes.

            The interviews revealed the presence of the “care perspective” and the influence of college instructors/professors on these women’s lives.  The responses related to the “care perspective” included the women’s descriptions of themselves and past relationships, as well as the importance they place on being a woman.  All women stated that their caring nature is what makes them as women different from men.

            The implications of this study included the following:  the influence that a college professor can have on a student can be either positive or negative.  These women reported that they did not need an authority figure to direct their thinking.  Each had her own ideas and opinions, only needing classroom experiences to facilitate them in developing these ideas further.

Higher Education: Transmission of Educational Values in Today's Society

Luz Marina Escobar and Warren G. Ortloff, The University of Southern Mississippi

           Literature in the United States regularly addresses symptoms of the decline of morals, values, and ethical behavior within its society. This decline has contributed to an increase in interpersonal violence and other concerns that have, in some cases, been correlated with decreased student academic achievement. Schools have traditionally assumed the role of promoting societies' values and, therefore, have assumed much of the blame. The university that educates the future teacher, who will in turn educate and influence children, has not been immune to this crisis.

            This study examined differences in college student values orientation over time through comparing student value's hierarchy conducted in a nationwide study by Rokeach in 1968 and more limited investigation by Escobar-Ortloff in 1999 at a major, comprehensive public university in Mississippi. In both instances, the Rokeach Values Survey was used as the instrument of choice in measuring and comparing student value orientation. The Rokeach survey requested respondents to rank order terminal (end-state of existence) and instrumental (modes of conduct) values in order of importance to them personally.

            Rokeach, in 1972, identified four instrumental values (responsible, capable, broad-minded, and intellectual) and four terminal values (sense of accomplishment, self-respect, wisdom, and freedom) that he found were perceived by educational institutions, professors of education, and school administrators to be important to those who valued education. This paper identified those "educational" values, determined their orientation among and between the Rokeach and Escobar-Ortloff studies, and offered to the reader an explanation for differences in value orientation through the philosophies of Logical Positivism, Utilitarism, and Personalism.

The Impact of Religious Belief on Learning in the Science Classroom

Ann M. Findley, Sara J. Lindsey, and Susie Watts, University of Louisiana at Monroe

            Research shows that one of the most important prerequisites for student success is for teachers to understand and respect individuals from different cultures, and to understand the communities from which they come (Ilmer, Snyder, Erbaugh & Kurz, 1997).  Thus, if we want students to succeed, what they bring into the science classroom in terms of belief simply cannot be ignored; fundamental beliefs have considerable impact on learning (Cooper, 1996).

            Two of the aims of the Rural Systemic Initiatives Program (RSI), which is working in 21 of Louisiana’s rural, economically disadvantaged parishes, are to address barriers to systemic and sustainable improvements in science and to adapt high quality, challenging curricula to address cultural diversity. With these aims in mind, a study was undertaken of 155 college freshmen biology students in order to ascertain their preconceived beliefs about the subject of evolution.  At the end of their course, students were given a survey in which they were asked to respond to questions pertaining to their own high school biology education, and to their beliefs concerning science, religion, and evolution. The survey consisted of 11 items requiring a response based on a five-point Likert scale. Four additional items required a yes/no response. Demographic data were obtained, and dependent samples t-tests were used to analyze the mean differences in scientific and religious beliefs between students from rural disadvantaged parishes and students from other parishes in Louisiana.

            The results showed that there were indeed significant differences between the two groups. Students from rural, disadvantaged parishes appear to accept that belief and supernatural explanations are within the realms of science. These findings suggested that science instruction in the rural parishes may be less effective because of cultural beliefs and to understandings regarding scientific study that students bring into the classroom.

Chair: George E. Marsh II, The University of Alabama

Teachers' Conception of the Extent and Nature of Parental Involvement in the School Literacy Programs in the Black Belt Region

Danjuma R. Saulawa, Alabama State University

            This study was designed to investigate the extent to which teachers in the Black Belt Region of a southeastern state felt that parents should be involved in curricular decisions, the ways in which they involved parents in the literacy development of their children, and the three most important ways they felt that parents could be involved in order to support the literacy development of their children.  An additional purpose of the study was to find out if there was a difference between primary, upper elementary, middle school, and high school teachers in their views about parental involvement.

            A three-item open questionnaire was sent through graduate students representing 21 schools from the Black Belt Region.   A total of 168 teachers responded and returned the questionnaire.

            Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze the data.  The preliminary results indicated ambivalence about parental involvement among the teachers.  While the majority of teachers indicated a support for parental involvement, the extent and the nature of parental involvement seemed to vary with grade levels.  Implications of the results of this study for teacher education were discussed.

Palm Pilots, Pagers and Parents

Paris Strom, Auburn University

           When teachers are asked to identify the changes needed to motivate greater student success, parent involvement is mentioned more frequently than any other factor. The most troubling concern of teachers involves a growing number of parents who do not return phone messages about a child’s misbehavior, appear unwilling to reinforce school conduct codes, and fail to attend conferences. One outcome of this trend is a gradual increase in the share of responsibility for student discipline assigned to the school.

           Teachers maintain that only parents have the authority to carry out the unique role of guiding social and emotional development of their children. Rapid notification of student behavior is needed for parents to provide timely corrective guidance on misconduct or reinforce commendable action. However, it is often difficult for teachers to contact parents who are working away from home, who do not have answering machines, or whose children erase messages.

           The goals of this pilot project supported by Motorola were to assess a system for teachers to document favorable and unfavorable behaviors of students and quickly notify their parents. Thirteen high school faculty were trained to use wireless organizers for recording coded student behavior and sending messages by pager. Parents of 100 students received and confirmed messages sent by teachers for one semester. When a parent received a coded pager message, he/she discussed the issue with the child. Data were transferred to the teacher’s computer for recordkeeping.

Urban School Principals’ Concept of the Relative Importance of Parental Involvement Among School Improvement Elements

Hae-Seong Park, University of New Orleans

            The purpose of this study was to examine the urban school principals' concept of the relative importance of parent involvement among seven major school improvement elements. A sample of urban school principals (n=102) was drawn in the New Orleans area. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression were employed to exhibit the principals’ self-reported concept for the relative importance of parent involvement and its association with principals’ evaluations for their schools’ existing condition for Epstein's five types of parent involvement.

            The rank of the relative importance of parent involvement was fifth among seven elements. The most important school improvement element was emphasizing powerful learning activities (mean = 2.68) in the classroom,  while the least important school improvement was infusing technology into the curriculum (mean = 5.28).

            To predict the concept of the importance of parent involvement for urban school principals, only the type of parent involvement in decision making among Epstein's five types of parent involvement was found as a significant factor. Suggestions for future research were offered.

Session 5.4 READING / LITERACY Riverside East

Chair:  Marian J. Parker, University of North Alabama

Reliability of the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (ERAS)

Rachael Flynn, Lorie Taylor, Leigh Ann Beard, Dixie Turnbo, and Richard Kazelskis, The University of Southern Mississippi

            The reliability of Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (ERAS) scores was examined by obtaining Cronbach's alphas and test‑retest coefficients for the recreational subscale, academic subscale, and the total scale scores. The responses of 718 students in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades were used in the analysis.  A seven-day test-retest interval was utilized.

            The recreational and academic subscale scores and the total scale scores of the ERAS were analyzed by gender, ethnicity, and grade level.  The alpha coefficients suggested adequate internal consistency across gender, ethnicity, and grade level, with all coefficients being above the .75 level.

            The test-retest coefficients associated with gender and ethnicity were slightly below the .70 level, ranging from .57 to .67, with the highest coefficients being for the total scale.  Test-retest coefficients for the recreational subscale scores for female students were slightly higher than for males, but the test-retest coefficients for the academic subscale and the total scale scores for male students were higher than for females.  Test-retest reliabilities for the recreational and academic subscales and the total scale scores were notably higher for African American students than for European American students.  All of the test-retest correlation coefficients by grade level were acceptable, ranging from .70 to .83. Test-retest reliabilities found in the present study were comparable to, or larger than, those reported by McKenna and Kear, authors of the ERAS.  The findings of the study suggested that total scores on the ERAS might be slightly more reliable than the subscale scores.

Reliability of the Student Literacy Attitude Inventory (SLAI)

Patti Smith, Thea Williams-Hayes, Yu-Hsing Chang, and Carolyn Reeves-Kazelskis, The University of Southern Mississippi

           Responses of 367 students in grades four, five, and six to the Student Literacy Attitude Inventory (SLAI) were used to examine the internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas) and test‑retest reliabilities of SLAI scores.  The data were analyzed by gender, ethnicity, and grade level for each SLAI subarea (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and self-perceptions as learners) and SLAI total scores.  The test‑retest interval was seven days.

            The alphas associated with the total SLAI scores ranged from .91 to .94 across gender, ethnicity, and grade level, but alpha coefficients for the subarea scores were lower ranging from .60 to .79 across the same groups. The test-retest coefficients for SLAI total scores were above .70 for all three grade levels, for females, and for African American students.  The only test‑retest coefficient below .70 for SLAI total scores was for males (.67).  For the SLAI subareas, the test-retest correlation coefficients associated with gender and grade level ranged from .44 to .74, with the highest correlations being associated with the subarea of speaking for female students (.71) and for fifth‑grade students (.74).

            Overall, the results indicated that total scores of the SLAI were acceptably reliable across the groups examined, suggesting that total scores appeared to be useful in assessing the extent to which students may respond positively to literacy programs that included multiple instructional strategies that incorporate language arts activities.  The reliabilities for the subarea scores suggested that subarea scores should be used with caution, pending further study of the various SLAI subareas.

A Review of the Literature on Pre-Kindergarten Cognitive Academic Language Assessment Instruments Suitable for Use in Culturally and Ethnically Diverse School Systems

Marie Miller-Whitehead, Tennessee Valley Educators for Excellence

            Although there are many regions of the country that have historically been ethnically and linguistically diverse, school system data and information from the 2000 census and other sources have indicated that many hitherto homogeneous regions of the country and their educational institutions have experienced significant growth in populations of immigrant children and their families.  Thus, many school systems have faced new challenges to meet the needs of these children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, including issues related to providing bilingual or ESL education for their Limited English Proficient children.

            Sources were selected from current extant psychometric reviews, the United States Department of Education, the Council of Chief State School Officers, the Center for Applied Linguistics, the various ERIC Clearinghouses, the United States Census Bureau, and position and policy papers on ESL and ELL student testing and placement from AERA, CRESST, and CREDE.

            The review examined the literature for approaches used to determine content, construct, and predictive validity of kindergarten cognitive diagnostic assessments and their usefulness for making decisions about pre-kindergarten students and groups of students from ethnically diverse populations.  The paper sought to identify the most current literature related to the examination of item domain goals and objectives, sources for sample items that could be useful to equate with other pre-kindergarten assessments for the purpose of developing item banks that measure children's cognitive academic language proficiency, and to examine the extant literature on differences in skill attainment of preschool male and female children and children from ethnic minority groups identified as LEP or ELL.

            Also addressed were some of the pitfalls to be aware of in assessing ethnically and socioeconomically diverse populations of preschool children, assessment items and item wording that might present difficulties for ELL children, and issues involved in using dichotomous or polytomous rating scales for scoring performance assessments.

Session 5.5            COMPUTER EDUCATION / TECHNOLOGY            Riverside West

Chair: Allison Potter, The University of Memphis

Chat: The Missing Link in On-line Instruction

Thelma J. Roberson and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

            As more courses in higher education move to an on-line format, a major concern that has arisen is the lack of personal interaction between the professor and student. Literature has provided evidence that, often, courses delivered on-line have tended to be configured and delivered in a style more often associated with independent study or correspondence work, i.e., students working independently to complete posted assignments at their own pace. While this format may work in some areas, it leaves a "missing link" in the learning curve for students because they lack the opportunity to benefit from the experience of structured dialogue and the sense of community that can be created in a traditional on-site classroom environment.

            This research paper presented evidence based on the authors' direct experience in delivering two sections of a graduate course taught via on-line format. Further, the paper detailed how to effectively employ chat technology and e-mail to more actively engage students and professors in the learning process.  Additionally, the paper suggested specific activities and delivery styles that allowed professors to utilize Socratic teaching methods, use chat rooms for small- and large-group dialogue and/or project development, build a sense of community, and allow for peer evaluation and feedback of student produced artifacts.  The paper provided evidence that utilization of the chat room and frequent e-mail afforded students the benefits of shared knowledge via dialogue from peers and the professor.  Conversely, the professor benefits from the ability to monitor student progress and adjust instruction to meet the evolving needs of students.  Finally, the authors presented evaluative findings based on a piloted team-taught course and shared the end-of-course student feedback.

An Evaluative Approach to Student Responses from a Video-Conferencing and On-line Survey: An Appraisal Approach Based on Accreditation

Sherri L. Restauri, Franklin L. King, and J. Gordon Nelson, Jacksonville State University

            There is a requirement for close examination of the needs of the students in the distance-learning environment in order to provide the best possible learning environment. This assessment may in turn lead to modest or extensive modification in teaching methodology. Criteria used to measure student satisfaction may be drawn from “must” items presented by an accrediting agency.  Two of the most popular delivery formats in distance education involve video-conferencing and on-line delivery methodologies. Each of these formats possesses certain variables that must be approached differently and skillfully by the instructors.

            The first step in this process of recognition and reorganization needed for all forms of distance education is to identify the differences that exist between the traditional delivery classroom environment and the classroom that is either augmented or replaced by one of these formats.  In order to accomplish this, an analysis of preference for student campus visits, instructor visitation/rotation, class orientation, teaching delivery style, and student-learning approach was performed in this study by means of an anonymous survey sent out to all students in on-line and video-conferencing classes. Student comparisons between the two major formats and traditional classroom characteristics were gathered, as well as student demographic data. Data were accumulated for all courses taught in the spring semester and entered into a statistical program for analysis. Results were reported in percentages.

            The results revealed a clear preference for particular teaching delivery styles and mode of learning material within each of these two categories of implementation. Certain variables in the comparison category revealed that student satisfaction with the class might have been highly dependent upon the ease with which the material can be viewed or accessed, independent of the format being used. It was necessary for instructors, departments, and accrediting agencies to take into account technological skills limitations of students in classes utilizing the on-line format, as well as to emphasize near perfection in performance of equipment in video conferencing.  Additional training for instructors who are or will be utilizing any of the formats may improve the adaptation of material into proper format suitable for teaching through the selected method of teaching. In addition, training has now been implemented in the on-line course format to overcome the technological skills deficit that many of these students hold at the beginning of the class.

Speaking with Interactive Educational Television Directors in Secondary Schools: Is IETV Making the Grade?

Patty M. Reed, Louisiana State University, and Peggy Doviak, University of Oklahoma

           The study examined the use of interactive educational television (IETV) in secondary school classrooms.  Distance education directors were asked to respond to questions involving the use of IETV programs within their schools.  Some of the questions concerned the expectations, effectiveness, and support of these programs.

           Twenty-three high schools were randomly chosen. Sixteen schools presently used IETV, five previously used IETV, and two never used IETV.  The participants for the study were the directors of the IETV programs.  The size of the schools ranged from less than 100 students to over 2000 students with IETV enrollment ranging from three to 60.  Of the 21 schools that used or previously used IETV classes the programs had been in place on the average of three to five years.  Classes offered in the IETV programs ranged from required courses such as English and math to elective courses such as business marketing and family relations.

           Data for the study were collected through questionnaires by mail, questionnaires by e-mail, and phone interviews.  Some of the statements on the questionnaires that the participants responded to were as follows:  (1) students are given the same opportunities for participation as students in the host school classrooms, and (2) I am satisfied with the progress students have made in the IETV courses.  Phone interviews were conducted with each participant concerning the history of their IETV programs, as well as their questionnaire responses.

            Data were analyzed both holistically and analytically.  Graphs were used to show distributions of responses and emerging patterns of data.  Even though this study was exploratory in nature and not conclusive, data indicated that most of the participants were satisfied with their IETV programs.  However, some concerns were expressed in the area of interaction for the programs.  Data suggested implications for IETV directors, IETV teachers, and school administrators.

* * * * Note: Bus Departs For UALR At 2:45 P.M. * * * *

2:30 P.M. - 3:20 P.M.

Chair: Abraham Andero, Alabama State University

From “Yellow Peril” To “Model Minority”: The Transition of Asian Americans

Srilata Bhattacharyya, The University of Memphis

           The academic achievements of students belonging to different ethnic minority groups have interested researchers in a multicultural society like the United States. Researchers are perplexed at the phenomenal educational success of Asian Americans, now referred to as the “model minority.”  Scholars have posited various theories, yet there was a dearth of comprehensive literature that indicates the pertinent reasons. This article was a critical review of the empirical and theoretical literature on the academic achievement of Asian Americans.

           An extensive computer search of databases, such as ERIC and Psychological Abstracts was done, followed by a manual search of books and journals in the behavioral and social sciences. The key words were Asian American, academic/educational, excellence/achievement.

            The earlier stereotypical image portrayed Asians as “yellow peril,” a threat to “White America,” with regard to labor and occupations. It took about 150 years for the transition to the recent portrayal of “model minority,” mainly based on the educational excellence and occupational performance. This can be attributed to a multiplicity of factors, the prominent ones being the cultural and parental values embedded in the structure and nature of the Asian family.

            Some of the key determinants of academic achievement of group were identified, and potential factors for success /failure were discussed. The historical bases of immigration revealed that various Asian countries have immigrated because of differing political, social, and economic reasons, and should not be considered as a monolithic group, irrelevant of the cultural identity, country of origin, and reasons for migration, as there are inherent differences in the ethnic groups.

            An analysis of the attributions for the exceptional academic achievement of Asian Americans may contribute to the school success of other ethnic minority groups in this pluralistic society. A socio-cultural approach to education would thus help. 

A Comparison of the Education Systems of the United States, the Republic of Korea, and Sri Lanka

Soo‑Back Moon, Catholic University Of Daegue (Korea), and Gunapala Edirisooriya and James E. Mclean, East Tennessee State University

            Each country's educational system is based on an educational philosophy that is the product of many years of tradition and practice.  Education is designed to further the goals of society by acculturating the youth. The purpose of this paper was to examine the educational systems in the United States, the Republic of Korea, and Sri Lanka in terms of their educational philosophies.

            In the United States, the educational system is based on the underlying premise that “all students should receive an education.  Koreans have traditionally placed great importance on education with the dual goals of personal advancement and self-fulfillment.  The education system in Sri Lanka has its roots in the Pririvena education system, which was organized by community-based Buddhist temples as a voluntary social service activity.  However, following the British colonization of the whole island, they established a system of public education which Sri Lanka inherited, including its philosophy, teaching methods, curriculum, assessment, organization, administration, and so on.

            Compulsory school attendance, access for special education students in their least restrictive environment, and access for disabled students are all products of the underlying educational philosophy in the United States.  The education system of Korea includes six-year elementary schools, three-year middle schools, and four-year high schools as well as colleges and universities.  All citizens are required to attend elementary school, resulting in one of the highest literacy rates in the world.  In Sri Lanka, education is free from at least kindergarten though the tenth grade.  Only those successfully completing an examination continue beyond Grade 10.

            An appropriate evaluation of the educational systems of these countries relates to how well the systems support the county's goals for education.  The full paper compared and contrasted the educational systems in light of the philosophies upon which each was based and the forces that influenced their development.

Two Cultures Under One Roof: A Comparison of Mexican and American High School Students at Stratford High School in Nashville, Tennessee

Melissa B. Graves, Tennessee State University

            The relationship between student achievement, student culture, a practitioner's attitude and expectations were investigated at Stratford High School in Nashville, Tennessee. Student achievement was defined as academic performance but also included perceptions, rationales, and explanations for student behaviors and conduct.  Student culture described students' Mexican American origins, customs, and beliefs to a limited degree.  The practitioner's attitude described how one high school teacher perceived an underachieving and a high achieving Mexican student in an inner-city high school and included expectations and some description of interactions between American high school teachers and the students interviewed.  The practitioner in this case was a white, American female. 

            Results indicated that Mexican American students perceived themselves and school personnel perceived these students as different from black and white American students.   Mexican American cultural traditions were also perceived as inferior and disadvantageous by a high achieving Mexican American student and by personnel.  Underachieving Mexican American students generally valued their cultural traditions more positively than high achieving students and became resistant to learning when these traditions were marginalized in school. Student achievement was also related to student compliance, student appearance, styles in written and verbal communication and the practitioner's perceptions about the willingness of Mexican American students to practice and support United States norms. 

            These findings agreed with theories that discussed relationships between student achievement, student culture, and practitioners' attitudes and expectations.  Theories about school failure occurring less frequently in minority groups that were positively oriented toward their own and the dominant culture were contradicted in this research.

Chair: Gail H. Weems, The University of Memphis

A Proposed New “What If Reliability” Analysis for Assessing the Statistical Significance of Bivariate Relationships

Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University; Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida; and J. Kyle Roberts, University of North Texas

            One of the assumptions underlying null hypothesis significance tests (NHST) is that all variables involved are measured without error. Unfortunately, when measurement errors are present, as is typically the case in the social and behavioral sciences, the relationships computed from the sample data will systematically underestimate the strength of the associations in the population. In the two-variable case, errors of measurement yield biased estimates of correlation coefficients that attenuate the true relationships. Indeed, the greater the measurement error, the more the correlation coefficient is attenuated. Thus, knowledge of the error of estimate, as indexed by the reliability coefficient, is vital.

           Recently, there have been calls for the reporting of sample-specific reliability coefficients and confidence intervals around reliability coefficients. However, the fact that most researchers do not report reliability estimates for their own data suggests that rhetoric is not sufficient to reverse this trend. Rather, what is needed is more compelling evidence of how information about current-sample specific reliability estimates can facilitate data analysis and interpretation.

            Thus, the purpose of the present paper was twofold. First, the authors illustrated how displaying disattenuated correlation coefficients alongside their unadjusted counterparts allowed the reader to assess the impact of unreliability on each bivariate relationship.

            Second, they demonstrated how a proposed new "what if reliability" analysis could complement the conventional NHST of bivariate relationships. Such analyses indicated how large a reliability coefficient was needed to obtain statistical significance for an observed correlation coefficient in cases where the null hypothesis was not rejected, as well as how small a reliability coefficient was needed before an observed statistically significant relationship was no longer statistically significant. As such, "what if reliability" analyses helped researchers interpret their results by considering the extent to which the reliability coefficient(s) yielded, or failed to yield, statistical significance.

A Monte Carlo Investigation of New Measures of Score Reliability and Homogeneity

J. Kyle Roberts, University of North Texas, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Much of the current research concerning reliability emphasized that researchers gather their own reliability estimates when administering an instrument, even if that instrument has been previously validated.  It has also recommended that data with low reliability estimates then be discarded.  While some data obtained from instruments that originally yielded reliable results may be unreliable, researchers have documented that it does not necessarily imply that the underlying data are not useful. 

            This paper contended that, although data from a homogeneous sample might yield less reliable scores than did an inducted sample, these data should not be discarded until further examination of the data is conducted.  In order to help researchers investigate the disattenuation of reliability estimates, the authors examined the following two recently developed statistics: (1) alpha-ROE and (2) the relative mean item variance (RMIV) index.  Both statistics provided a measure of score homogeneity. Alpha-ROE, which ranges from 0 to 1, indicates the amount of the lack of total test score variance (and individual item variance) that is due to score homogeneity. The RMIV ranges from ¥ to 1, with positive values indicating that the (low) reliability coefficient is the result of score homogeneity (with respect to the original test manual dataset).

            The researchers investigated the properties of these indices via a Monte Carlo technique. Specifically, this procedure was used to document the acceptable and non-acceptable parameter values of alpha-ROE and the RMIV index for various levels of decrease in Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.  The resulting information will allow future researchers to correct their reliability estimate for their observed levels of score homogeneity as measured by alpha-ROE and the RMIV index. As such, the presenters contended that this study represented a useful and necessary next step in the development of these homogeneity statistics.

Session 6.3   DEVELOPING ON-LINE DEGREE PROGRAMS: ADVANTAGES OF THE VIDEO-STREAMING MODEL (Training, 2 Hours)   UALR

Trainers: Larry R. Dickerson and William E. Garner, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            This training session discussed and demonstrated the techniques used to develop and implement a new, completely on-line graduate degree program in Rehabilitation Counseling (MRC) at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock.  This method used videostreaming technology, chromakey equipment, and Microsoft PowerPoint to present lecture materials on-line in an asynchronous video format.  With this approach, the on-line content and experience was very similar to what a student would encounter in attending a class on-campus.  This methodology allowed the program to place 13 courses on-line in a 15-month span partially because the approach was very user friendly for faculty members.

            Participants developed an understanding of how to apply this model for on-line courses/degree programs to their specific needs.  Topics included:  (1) technology requirements, (2) university and administrative issues, (3) staff and support requirements, (4) faculty enlistment and training, (5) course development and implementation, (6) student recruitment at the national and international level, (7) integration with the BlackBoard Instructional Webframe, (8) day-to-day operations and issues, and (9) accessibility for persons with disabilities.

            This training session took place in the Distance Education Classroom and Lab on the University of Arkansas at Little Rock campus where all MRC course videostreams are produced.   The participants were allowed to see direct demonstration of the process and get hands-on experience with the techniques used.  Participants had the opportunity to deliver a simulated on-line presentation using the chromakey technology.

Chair: W. Keith Christy, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Basic Statistics On-line and in Class

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas, Little Rock, and Corliss Jean Mccallister, The Anthony School

            The study compared the effectiveness of traditional, electronic mail and combination approaches for teaching graduate introductory statistics classes.  The electronic mail course that was the focus of this study was offered in the 1997-2000 fall terms under the same instructor.  All sections integrated the use of a computer program for data analysis. 

            There were 41 participants in the traditional (only) classes, 20 in the electronic (only), and 28 using both methods, with a majority membership of white females.  Twenty-item multiple-choice pretests and posttests on basic statistical topics were given.  An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run using posttest scores as the response variable and pretest scores as the covariate.  The ANCOVA technique involved features of both the analysis of variance and regression, so assumptions for both were tested.  Random selection was not possible because students were allowed to participate in any version of the course they thought most appropriate for them.  Normality and homoscedasticity across all groups were verified using the Omnibus Normality of Residuals and Modified-Levene Equal-Variance tests.  Treatment and control groups observed homogeneity of regression in scatterplots of pretest scores versus posttest scores and their trend lines.

            The test indicated that the null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference among the traditional (adjusted mean of 6.17, n=41), electronic (adjusted mean of 6.83, n=20), and both traditional and electronic (adjusted mean of 6.94, n=28) classes' scores could not be rejected at the 0.05 level [F(2,85)=1.15,  p=0.32].  The effect size, f=0.16, was small (Cohen).  It was concluded, then, that offering the course using a traditional approach, electronic mail, or a combination of approaches, seemed to neither help nor hinder the performance of the students to the extent measured by the multiple-choice tests.

Computing in Class and Attitudes Toward Statistics

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas, Little Rock, and Corliss Jean Mccallister, The Anthony School

            The study investigated the attitudes toward statistics of graduate students who studied advanced statistics in which the focus of instruction was the use of a computer program in class.  The use of the program made it possible to provide an individualized, self-paced, student-centered, and activity-based course.  The three sections involved in this study were offered in the 2001 spring term.  Complete data were obtained form 19 participants.  Fifteen were in advanced statistics, and four were in multivariate statistics, with the majority being white females.  The instrument used was the Statistics Attitude Survey (Roberts and Bilderback, 1980). 

            Both chi-square (10.55, p=0.03) and Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance W (0.04, p=0.65) indicated that there were differences in the distributions of ranks between the pretest and posttest survey results.  Most of these differences occurred as increases in the rankings marked at each end of the scales.  That is, after the course, more students felt more strongly that they agreed or disagreed with statements about some aspects of statistics.  For example, students agreed more strongly that "Statistics will be useful to me when I describe my professional activities to other people," and "I find statistics to be very logical and clear."  On the other hand, they disagreed more strongly that "When I solve a statistics problem, I am often unsure if I have a correct or nearly correct answer," and "Statistics is the most difficult course I have taken."  Comments from open-ended evaluation forms may help explain the results of the survey, such as:  "given the freedom to learn at my own pace and style," "liked the structure of class," "class flexibility," "final projects," and "relaxed environment."  It was concluded, then, that offering the course using computers may help improve students' attitudes about certain aspects of statistics.

Observations About Alternative Data Collection Techniques in Qualitative Research: E-Mail, Save-To-Disk, and Taped Interviews

Gary M. Stiler, University Of Southern Indiana

           Traditional data collection methods for qualitative research include copious note taking and taped interviews with subsequent transcription and analysis. As an alternative, a case study was conducted using interviews completed by e-mail between informant and interviewer. At the onset, this process seemed to offer advantages with regard to efficiency, thoroughness, and flexibility. Furthermore, Wilson, Lowry, Koneman, and Osman-Jouchoux (1996) suggested that e-mail interviews decrease respondent anxiety and increase the accuracy of their statements.

           After an extended review of the proposed e-mail collection methodology by the Human Participant Review Committee, a workable data collection plan was negotiated and approved. However, as participant interviews were initiated, it was found that the exclusive use of e-mail as a data collection mechanism was untenable. Variations were subsequently incorporated. These included the preparation of responses by participants on word processors and transmittal of hard copy documents, a save-to-disk procedure, and traditional taped interviews with subsequent transcription.

            The use of e-mail in qualitative data collection has potential. Through a review of the steps taken in developing and revising the data collection procedures, it is believed that qualitative researchers will be able to refine this potentially valuable methodology. Furthermore, findings suggested that by using a mix of data collection techniques, the quality and validity of data could be enhanced.

* * * * NOTE: BUS DEPARTS FOR UALR AT 4:00 P.M. * * * *

3:30 P.M. - 4:20 P.M.

Chair: Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Technology Training for Preservice Teachers: Challenges for Colleges of Education

Linda F. Cornelious, Mississippi State University

           Teacher training institutions are currently facing the overwhelming task of preparing preservice teachers for technology-enhanced classrooms.  There is significant pressure on colleges of education to graduate students who are knowledgeable about technology and are equipped to use it effectively.  During the past decade, teachers and teacher training institutions have been impacted significantly by the growth of technology in education, and this trend is not likely to change.  Even though computers are now available in most schools, not all preservice teachers see the value of using computers to complement their instructional methods.  If preservice or inservice teachers demonstrate proficiency in integrating technology into their teaching but do not believe technology has a use in the classroom, then they will probably not teach using technology.

            The purpose of this paper was to review the literature to identify the basic components of teacher training that may need to be transformed so that teachers who graduate from institutions of higher learning are prepared and comfortable in the use of technology as an instructional tool.  The paper also described preservice teachers attitudes toward computers and technology, and preservice teachers and technology self-efficacy.  

           Preparing preservice teachers to use computer-related technology in the classroom should be a major concern of the faculty in all teacher preparation institutions.  Preparation must first begin with faculty serving as role models by using technology to facilitate instruction in their own classes, allowing students to observe the use of technology in the various disciplines.  This paper suggested how research on faculty use of technology in well-designed preservice teaching training programs can enhance classroom practice, improve student achievement, and ultimately contribute to teacher and student proficiency and productivity.

Encouraging Student Teachers Via Electronic Mail

Linda H. Thornton, Harding University

            In January 2001, 44 elementary and special education student teachers enrolled in a professional seminar course were randomly assigned to one of two groups; 43 student teachers received e-mail messages from the professors regarding exams, job openings, and links to helpful Internet sites.  In addition, both groups received from the professor inspirational e-mail messages tied to Pathwise competencies encouraging them to maintain a high level of performance.

            Twenty-two student teachers were assigned to receive more frequent encouraging e-mail messages from the professor, and 22 student teachers were assigned to receive less frequent encouraging e-mail messages.  The group assigned to receive more frequent encouragement received 21 inspirational messages throughout the semester in addition to the procedural and informational messages.  The group assigned to receive less frequent encouragement received seven inspirational messages throughout the semester in addition to the procedural and informational messages. One student from the more frequent messages group was dropped from the study because she had problems with her e-mail account and was unable to check her messages throughout most of the semester.  This left 21 student teachers in the more frequent message group and 22 student teachers in the less frequent message group.

            The groups were compared on three dependent variables-scores on the Praxis II Principles of Learning and Teaching Exam, scores on the Harding University Field Experience Observation System Assessment, and success in finding a teaching position in fall 2001.

Student Teachers' Ability and Use of Technology

Joanna P. Dickey, Shirley Long, and Sue Reehm, Eastern Kentucky University

           This paper described findings from a study that explored student teachers’ competencies in relation to the Kentucky Department of Education’s technology standard for new and experienced teachers. Eastern Kentucky University student teachers in elementary, middle grades, secondary, and special education certification areas were asked in May 2001 to complete a survey designed to rate their perceived ability and use of technology during student teaching.

           Survey participants (elementary N = 43, middle grades N = 26, secondary N = 59, special education N = 10) were asked to rate their performance on 27 criteria in each of four different performance areas. Participants rated their performance on a Likert scale (range 1 - 5) for: (1) ability, (2) frequency of use, (3) opportunities as a student teacher, and (4) observation of cooperative teacher’s use of technology.

           Mean scores for each group of survey participants were computed and analyzed for all 27 criteria in each of the four performance areas. Criteria were considered as “met” if the mean score value equaled or exceeded 3.00 on the 1-5 scale. Results indicated that:  (1) all groups met a high majority of the criteria in the area of ability, and (2) the number of criteria met by each group differed among the four performance areas. A series of t-tests computed to analyze these differences revealed that student ratings were significantly higher (p<.01) for ability than for the other three areas.

           A regression analysis was computed to analyze students’ ability, frequency of use, and cooperating teachers’ use as predictors of technology use during student teaching. Results indicated that frequency of use and cooperating teachers’ use were significant predictors  (p<.01) of opportunity to use technology by student teachers, while ability was not a significant predictor. These findings have important implications for undergraduate teacher preparation programs.

Session 7.2   INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS: APPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHERS (Training, 1 Hour)      UALR

Russell F. West, East Tennessee State University

            This training session provided an introduction to the analysis of social networks in schools.  Social relationships have long been considered important in the behaviors and opinions of students.  While educators have recognized the importance of social structure in the development of children and youth, there has been little emphasis placed on assessing the nature of these relationships and using this information to help explain achievement in schools.  Social network analysis includes a recent set of methods that can be used in the study of social structures of children.  Specifically, the UCINET 5.0 and KRACKPLOT 3.0 microcomputer programs represent two tools that allow researchers to assess the characteristics of these social structures. 

            The purpose of this session was to introduce participants to some of the major concepts used in the analysis of social networks and the UCINET 5.0 and KRACKPLOT 3.0 microcomputer programs.  Participants were able to: (1) identify major network concepts associated with the analysis of social structure, (2) recognize common strategies for collecting information about networks, and (3) describe the process for inputting network data into the UCINET 5.0 and KRACKPLOT 3.0 microcomputer programs and estimating individual network properties  (i.e., size/degree, density, heterogeneity, compositional quality, centrality, and power) and group properties (group density, centralization, and homophily).  

            The session began with an introduction to the use of social network research and the basic concepts and terms used describing social structure.  Participants gained an understanding of network properties and methods of data collection through a hands-on examination of their own ego-centered networks and organizations.  A more complex school application was demonstrated on the microcomputer using the UCINET 5.0 and KRACKPLOT 3.0 programs.   The session ended with a discussion of other potential uses of these analytical tools in assessing social structures in schools.

Age and Ethnic Variations in Family Process Mediators of SES

Robert Flynn Corwyn and Robert H. Bradley, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            Many of the ecological developmental models that have been proposed to explain the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and child development include aspects of children's home environments, such as the amount of cognitive stimulation available and parental responsiveness.  Most researchers have concentrated their efforts on specific developmental periods even though many of the putative mechanisms have been assumed to have operated throughout most of childhood.  Although current research in this area has moved toward understanding processes, unknown is the extent to which particular home environmental processes specified in proposed developmental models actually have mediated relations between SES and various aspects of child well‑being during each major developmental period.   There is both empirical and theoretical support for believing that some mediators will be less potent during adolescence than early childhood, and that these relations will differ across various cultural groups.

            The purpose of this study was to examine two aspects of the home environment frequently included in SES/child development mediational models (learning stimulation, maternal responsiveness) from early childhood to adolescence using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) - a national survey of youth development.  These relations were examined for three developmental outcomes (vocabulary attainment, achievement test performance, and problem behaviors) in three ethnic groups (African American, European American, Latino).  SES was operationalized with the Duncan SEI scale, learning stimulation and maternal responsiveness were derived from subscales of the NLSY HOME‑Short Form, behavior problems were measured with the Behavior Problems Index (BPI Items were mostly derived from the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist), math achievement and reading comprehension were taken from the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT), and receptive vocabulary was measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test ‑ Revised (PPVT‑R).  Results found evidence that the home environment sometimes mediates the relation between SES and child outcomes, and the findings differed across ethnic groups.

Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement: Tests of Differential Effects Across Four Asian Groups

Robert Flynn Corwyn and Ting Steven Tieng Sing, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            Research on parental involvement has received increased attention in recent years. The importance of parental involvement is clearly exemplified by evidence that parental involvement plays a key role in promoting academic success, the salient role it plays in current educational reform, and by the increased educational expectations placed on young students in the United States. Moreover, an increase in the proportion of race and ethnic adolescents has contributed to a growing number of studies that make comparisons across different ethnic groups. These studies, however, typically combine all Asian groups into one monolithic group even though the available evidence, as well as theory, would suggest that there are important differences in family functioning between Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, Korean Americans, and Filipino American families.

            This study sought to determine if there were ethnic group differences between four Asian groups (Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, Korean Americans, and Filipino Americans) in the effect of parental involvement on students' academic achievement.  Also investigated were:  (1) the relative importance of various types of parental involvement in predicting student academic achievement, and (2) cross‑group differences in the importance of various types of parental involvement in predicting student academic achievement.

            Data from the National Educational Longitudinal Survey (NELS:88), a nationally representative sample of American eighth graders in 1988, were utilized to test a model that included five areas of parental involvement (parental aspirations, parent-child communication, home structure, participation in school activities, and provision of learning resources in the home) and controlled for family characteristics and students’ previous achievement.

            Race was found to be a significant moderator of the effects of parental involvement on student academic success. Moreover, cross-group differences were found in the impact of various types of parental involvement, especially with regard to the provision of learning resources and parental aspirations among the Japanese.

Parental Involvement and Twelfth-Grade Students' Academic Achievement:  Tests of Differential Effects Between African American and European American Students

Ting Steven Tieng Sing and Robert Flynn Corwyn, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

           Based on evidence that parental involvement has a positive influence on student academic achievement, educational reform efforts, educational expectations, and educational research have placed a high priority on parental involvement. However, the relative influence of different forms of parental involvement on student academic achievement is not well understood. Moreover, even less is known about how the relations between various types of parental involvement and student academic success may differ across ethnic groups.

           This study sought to determine if there were differences between European American students and African American students in the effect parental involvement has on their academic achievement. The relative importance of various types of parental involvement, and group differences in the importance of various types of parental involvement in predicting student academic achievement were investigated.

           Data from the National Educational Longitudinal Survey (NELS:88), a nationally representative sample of American adolescents, was used in order to test a model that included five areas of parental involvement (parental aspirations, parent-child communication, home structure, participation in school activities, provision of learning resources in the home) and controlled for family characteristics and student' previous achievement. Students were in the twelfth grade during the 1992 school year.

            Race was found to be a significant moderator of the effects of parental involvement on student academic success. Moreover, cross‑group differences were found in the impact of various types of parental involvement.

* * * * Note: Final Bus Departs For UALR At 4:30 P.M. * * * *

4:30 P.M. - 5:20 P.M.

Cheryl R. Grable, Barbara Stanford, Pam Warrick, Shirley Freeman‑Turner, and Warren Kimmerly, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            Preservice educators are faced by a plethora of standards from NCATE, ISTE, state standards, and standards implied in student examinations such as PRAXIS II.  Secondary educators must also meet content standards from national learned societies.  The authors presented an approach to integrating all of the standards in a technology-enhanced, problem-based curriculum using EAST Lab technology in both the university and cooperating secondary and middle level schools. The presentation included highlights of successful development of curricula throughout teacher education programs.  The presenters were participants in a United States Department of Education project:  Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology (PT3).

5:30 P.M.   KEYNOTE ADDRESS, FOLLOWED BY JOINT UNIVERSITIES RECEPTION  UALR

Note: Buses Depart UALR For Doubletree Hotel at 7:30 and 8:30 P.M.


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