8:00 a.m. - 9:20 a.m. NEW MEMBER BREAKFAST      Salon D

9:30 a.m. - 10:20 a.m.

Session 10.1   SCHOOL COMMUNITIES / SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT         Salon A

Chair: Randy Parker, Louisiana Tech University

Student Voices: Links To Community Coalitions

Jo Sykes Chesser, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            Researchers hesitated to use the perceptions of youth because of the lack of reality and experience represented in the suggestions and opinions of this age group. Consequently, the voices of students were taken lightly; paying lip service to the frustrations and calls for justice in the world that exists for them. Most schools have school councils, organized clubs, school newspapers, and student debates. However, the silence of those who do not fit into the common mold of a school environment has exploded into school violence, the drug scene, and sexual revolution of this nation. Many youth did not believe that their viewpoints were important.

            Recent research into youth expressions in small groups called study circles has indicated that adults and students benefit from meeting together to discuss a central issue such as "What can be done in our community to make a difference in education?" Students from two communities in Arkansas participated in a qualitative case study to bring the perspectives of youth voices to the table for community cooperation in the schools. The diversity of the communities presented strikingly different profiles of adult acceptance of student opinions. The size of community and systemic process of decision making in the school district provided the opportunity to hear or to silence the voices of the students.

            Using grounded theory analysis, the transcriptions of the students were compared to the adult perceptions of present school issues and needs. The acceptance of student opinions and requests was determined by the adult inclusion in school district decision making. A collaborative environment involving adult community citizens in the decision-making process influenced the acceptance of student voice and gave action to their recommendations. This paper presented the background information that culminated in student voices bringing together a community coalition that resulted in school-improvement efforts.

Developing an Accountability Plan for the Boys and Girls Club:  Building Bridges and Creating Learning Communities

Cynthia J. Reed, Sean Forbes, and Frances K. Kochan, Auburn University, and Wanda Lewis and Salazek D. Spratling, Boys and Girls Club of Greater Lee County (Alabama) and Auburn University

            Colleges of education have been criticized for a failure to fully prepare graduates for their future professions. Two primary criticisms have been that future teachers and administrators have not had formal opportunities to apply theories learned through course work in real settings and that a disconnect existed between colleges and the community.

            At this college of education, faculty have been engaged in the creation of service learning opportunities that offer students authentic learning opportunities while providing a needed service to community/school agencies. In this paper efforts were described to enhance student learning while providing a needed service, the development of an assessment/accountability plan, for the Boys and Girls Club in this area. Once programmatic needs were identified at the clubs through the efforts of an educational leadership class, a preservice teacher education course centered on enacting recommendations from the assessment.  Efforts to build bridges between these class projects, provide services to the club, and continue efforts toward creating learning communities within and among these three groups were described. Additional insights were offered about the need for administrative support.

            Reflections on these efforts, results of course evaluations completed by students, and feedback collected through interviews or surveys from the leadership and Board of Directors of the Boys and Girls Club were offered. Based on this data, it has been learned that students gain rich learning opportunities, authentic experiences, and insights about an important community agency. The Boys and Girls Club gained needed services, volunteers, and information.

            Collaborative work such as this benefits all involved.  Bridges have been built between teacher and leadership education and an important community agency. While working and learning together, each other’s needs have been shared, offering valuable lessons for students and young people at the clubs.

 Chair: Byra L. Ramsey, Arkansas Tech University

Computer and Calculators In School: A Status Report

Garfield Burke, Jr., Mississippi Valley State University

            In 1987 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) published a position statement in which they called for changes in mathematics curriculum, instructional methods, and access to computer hardware and software.   In 1989, NCTM also proposed a balanced curriculum with greater emphasis on conceptual development, mathematical reasoning, and problem solving. NCTM also recommended that teachers learn how to integrate technology into the mathematics curriculum. A position statement on the use of calculators was published in 1991 in which NCTM strongly urged that calculator usage be promoted by school districts, teachers at every level, authors, and educators. In the 2000 publication of Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, NCTM noted that "Technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students' learning." In view of NCTM's position on computer and calculator use, there is a need to know how available computers and calculators are in schools, how they are being used, and to what extent.

            In order to ascertain a clear perception of the present uses of computers and calculators in schools, various sources were consulted including journal articles, books, and dissertations.  An on-line, computerized literature search was conducted using Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). Some of the areas in which the literature search produced information were: (1) computers in education, (2) technology integration, and (3) computers/calculators in mathematics education.

            The literature review revealed that the number of computers and calculators in the schools has grown and will continue to grow and the computers that are now in the schools are not being fully utilized. Text processing tools appeared to be the most common use of computers in school. Calculators appeared to be used mostly for checking paper-and-pencil calculations, developing skills at estimation, and problem solving. Several of the studies found that teacher training was an important factor in computer use and the fear that traditional skills would not be learned was an important factor in calculator use. It appeared that computers and calculators have been forcing curriculum planners to critically examine the content and methods of teaching secondary school mathematics. Too many teachers are not adequately trained in technology integration or in favor of unrestricted use of calculators.

Overhead Transparencies or Powerpoint: Does it Make a Difference?

Rebecca M. Giles and Paige V. Baggett, University of South Alabama

            In traditional classrooms, information is displayed on chalkboards, multipurpose boards, pegboards, bulletin boards, or flip charts (Heinich, 1999). To project instructional materials, overhead transparencies are one of the most commonly used tools; however, the impact of technology has led to the use of computers for presenting information in many of today's classrooms (Yao, Ouyang, & Wang, 2000). This study investigated the impact of presentation formats on preservice teachers' ability to retain information along with their perceptions regarding subject matter and instructor's effectiveness.

            Participants, approximately 80 preservice teachers enrolled in three sections of an elementary language arts methods course, received instruction during two 50-minute class periods relating to one unit of study. Although the content and instructor remained constant for all three sections, each section received instruction using a different presentation format:  (1) lecture with black and white overhead transparencies, (2) lecture with color overhead transparencies, and (3) lecture with PowerPoint slides. Following the two class sessions, participants responded to the Presentation Survey and completed a 10-item multiple choice quiz covering the lecture's content.

            The Presentation Survey was a seven-item instrument developed by the researchers that used a five-point Likert-type scale and personal comments to measure students’ perceptions of presentation effectiveness. Quantitative data obtained from Presentation Surveys were analyzed using an analysis of variance. Quiz scores were analyzed using an analysis of covariance with overall grade point average serving as the co-variant.

            Results from this study provided practical information regarding the perceived effectiveness of various presentation formats, as well as the influence of presentation format on learning.

Implementing Wireless Laptop Technology in Preservice Elementary Methods Classes

Gahan Bailey, Paige Baggett, Edward L. Shaw, and Scott Hopkins, University of South Alabama

            In an effort to train preservice teachers to use technology as a professional tool, faculty members at the University of South Alabama instituted a unique approach that this study addresses. The objectives of this study were:  (1) to ensure that methods courses would integrate instructional technology throughout the teacher education curriculum, (2) to ensure that faculty members serve effectively as models of professional teachers, and (3) to ensure that field experiences for teacher education majors, particularly student teachers, would have more opportunity to apply instructional technology during field experiences. To meet these objectives, a technology-rich environment through the use of wireless laptop computers was established.

            Participants in this study consisted of senior students majoring in elementary education who were in multiple methods sections of cohort groups. Of the two groups, one was selected to be the experimental group, and another was selected to be the control group. Each student in the experimental group received an Apple iBook laptop computer for use throughout the study. Students had no knowledge that the project was to be implemented; thus, there was no logical reason why students would have preferred one cohort group over another.

            Data were collected by means of three instruments: (1) the Profiler Survey: Basic Skills Checklist, a 29-item, self-reporting instrument that uses a Likert scale (1 - 4) to indicate the level of proficiency in accomplishing specific technology related tasks, (2) an Educational Technology Attitude Survey for the purpose of determining overall attitude toward technology as an instructional tool, and (3) a Technology Usage Log to record the amount of time students used the computer and how they utilized the computer. Discussed in this session were the implementation of the wireless laptop technology, the results of the data analyses, and educational implications.

Chair:  Rose Mary Newton, The University of Alabama

Faculty Participation in Governance: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study

Jack G. Blendinger, Vincent McGrath, and Linda Cornelious, Mississippi State University

            This qualitative case study reported experiences in shared governance at a college of education over a five-year period (1996-2001). The paper reported recent events in shared governance. Initial experiences were reported at the 1997 annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (MSERA).

            Establishing shared governance has been disappointing. Vision has not been translated into reality. Guiding principles have not been implemented. Continued high turnover of faculty and failed efforts to restructure the college have been inhibiting factors.

            Data collected for the past five years consisting of operational guidelines, memoranda, minutes, reports, faculty surveys, and artifacts were shared with session participants. Reasons why the concept of shared governance has not been successful were also explored. In addition, participants were invited to share their own experiences.

Race and National Origin Discrimination in Hiring and Promotional Decisions in Academe

Patricia S. Wall, Tennessee State University

            About 65% of America’s population growth during the next two decades will be members of minorities, especially Hispanics and Asian immigrants. As society becomes increasingly multicultural, lawsuits in the educational environment involving discrimination by race and national origin are also likely to become more prevalent. Such cases are filed under the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VII, and Section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1991. While there is an abundance of case law concerning racial discrimination, case law concerning national origin discrimination is less common.

            Title VII provides protection to members of all nationalities in any phase of the employment process and prohibits discrimination in both public and private employment. Many national origin lawsuits involve open or concealed action involving hiring or promotional decisions. The plaintiff must prove disparate treatment or disparate impact. Disparate treatment means the employer intentionally discriminated against the plaintiff. Disparate impact means that the employer’s action had a discriminatory effect on a group protected by Title VII.

            Teachers and administrators need to be aware of case and statutory law in this area. This paper analyzed several major lawsuits concerning this type of alleged discrimination against teachers and administrators, using the WestLaw database.

            The Fourteenth Amendment, Title VII, and the Civil Rights Act of 1991 all address equal opportunity. The concepts of equity and equality in academe were also discussed. Finally, policies and procedures were recommended in order to avoid future actions.

A Regional Study of Gender Differential Perceptions of Mentoring Functions in Accessing the Superintendency

Lisa M. Hall and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

            America’s public schools demand leadership excellence in the superintendency.  Cultural and educational criticism regarding the decay of public education and the emergence of complex societal demands have created a crisis in the schools.  Who are the men and women leading America’s public school systems?  What are the “tricks of the trade” in walking the path to the superintendency?  Finally, why do so few women and minorities occupy the highest ranking and top paying positions in our nation’s schools? 

            Mentoring has served as a powerful developer of human potential throughout the centuries and has assisted novices being inducted into, and succeeding in, their chosen profession.  Effective mentors provide valuable career and psychosocial assistance for aspiring superintendents as they progress in the profession from induction to independence.

            This paper reported on the research findings from sampled practicing public school superintendents, who functioned in a mentoring capacity, as well as mentored protégés based upon mentor – mentee groupings of:  (1) male – male, (2) male – female, (3) female – female, and (4) female – male.  Additionally, a set of recommendations was provided relative to areas for future research.

Session 10.4   AN EXAMINATION OF THE NATIONAL BOARD FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHING STANDARDS (Training, 1 hour)      Palisades

Trainers:         Naomi C. Coyle, E. John Turner, and Sue Hernandez, Centenary College of Louisiana

            Teachers have a great opportunity to improve their personal professional image and the image of the education profession by seeking and obtaining certification from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS).  Many teachers are unaware of the standards, rewards available in seeking and obtaining national certification, or the process that must be followed in gaining national certification.  Participants in this project obtained the knowledge needed to promote NBPTS to education professionals, encouraging the professional to seek and obtain certification. The investigators believed that through this process, the educator would develop a mindset to encourage members of the profession to take advantage of rewards offered and would develop a lobbying effort to encourage states and local boards not offering rewards to begin doing so. Teachers of teachers would begin stressing the value of national certification in their undergraduate and graduate education classes.

            The program content was based upon the following objectives:  (1) the learner/participant will acquire a general knowledge concerning NBPTS, (2) the learner/participant will able to identify the basic requirements for NBPTS certification, (3) the learner/participant will analyze collected data to determine the region in the United States that rewards National Board Certified Teachers the most, and (4) the learner/participant will be able to promote greater awareness of NBTPS in the educational community.

            The proposed activities were designed to promote the stated objectives.  Specifically, the presenters had designed instructional activities that were meaningful to the learners/participants in terms of NBPTS certification, were devised instructional activities requiring learner/participant collaboration to accomplish a joint product, and assisted learners/participants to connect and apply information learned to their own educational communities.

Chair: William Spencer, Auburn University

Factors Affecting Engineering Student Retention: a Look at Racial Differences

Gerald Halpin, Glennelle Halpin, and Todd Johnson, Auburn University

            In order to have the work force needed for the technical jobs tomorrow, a continuous supply of highly skilled engineers will be needed. Unfortunately, many initially choosing to major in engineering in college drop out before receiving a degree. This drop-out problem is particularly prominent among minorities. The purpose of this investigation was to identify factors that might be related to students' changing their college major from engineering. Particular consideration was given to African Americans.

            The total sample was 419 students who exited the engineering program at a large land-grant university from fall 1999 to fall of 2000. Regarding these students, 88% were Caucasian (N = 376) and 10% were African Americans (N = 43).

            The seven variables that comprised the primary measures of this study were:  (1) math/science preparedness, (2) verbal preparedness, (3) factors impacting motivation and success, (4) academic success strategies, (5) financial security, (6) peer acceptance, and (7) social acceptance. Inter-item reliability for measures of these seven variables ranged from .43 to .78. Using MANOVA, a statistically significant effect was found for race. Follow-up analyses revealed additional findings directly related to individual variables that were discussed.

            Using the results from this study, administrators and professionals can gain a better understanding of who leaves engineering and why they go. This study highlighted and summarized why some of the brightest students are leaving and where they are going. Underscored was the importance of adapting programs to meet the needs of students.

Theory of Reasoned Action and Choosing a Major in Engineering

Todd Johnson, Glennelle Halpin, and Gerald Halpin, Auburn University

            Employment opportunities in engineering-related jobs are expected to increase by about 51%, or about 1.9 million jobs, through the year 2008. To meet this demand, it is vital that university administrators, recruiters, and faculty understand why students choose to major in engineering.

            The Theory of Reasoned Action proposes that behavior can be predicted from behavior intentions, attitudes, and subjective social norm influences. These three variables mediate all external influences such as demographics, attitudes toward the target behavior, and personality traits. Using this theory, engineering students at a large land-grant university from 1997 to 2000 were asked to respond to 19 questions relating to influences upon them to major in engineering. Specific questions addressed in the study were:  (1) students' attitude toward engineering, (2) students' perception of others to support their choice (social norm influences), and (3) similarities and differences of African Americans and women.

            The total sample was 2297 students enrolled in the pre-engineering program between the years of 1997 to 2000. Of these students, 78% were male (N = 1786) and 22% were female (N = 511). Additionally, 85% of the students were Caucasian (N = 1946), and 10% were African American (N = 221).

            Factor analysis yielded four factors that explained 48% of the total variance. Two of the factors were attitude related, and two were social norm influences. Cronbach inter-item correlations ranged from .48 to .79.  Using a MANOVA, a statistically significant effect was found for gender and race, but no significant interaction effects were observed. SEM was then used to test the theoretical proposition. 

            Findings highlighted that choice of major was more than merely a matter of personal or individual preference. Sociological and psychological factors were also quite relevant. The results have implications for recruiters and professionals in understanding student choice of major.

An Examination of the Relationship Between Learning Style and Technology Use

Wendy L. Jordanov, The University of Memphis

            In today’s ever-changing technological world, students are faced with many challenges and opportunities.  It is important for educators to facilitate and encourage student growth and development in the technological realm.  One way to assist students is to know if and how they are adapting their learning styles to technological environments.  Knowledge of the relationship between learning style in general and learning style while using the computer may better prepare teachers and students for more efficient, successful learning in the current age of technology.  The stability of learning style is another valuable key to understanding student preferences over both the short term and the long term.

            The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between students’ learning styles and Internet use in a college course in which technology was infused through the use of an interactive course website, on-line substantive course material, and use of on-line discussion rooms.  Variables of gender and ethnicity were also examined. The setting was a large multi-section undergraduate education course on lifespan human development.  All students were trained in the use of campus technology resources.  Specific assignments requiring use of the on-line material were made and comprised a percentage of students’ grades. 

            Students (N = 134) completed Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory, Steitz’s technology survey, an Internet-Focused Style Inventory. T-tests that compared general learning style to style while using the Internet showed a significant difference (p < .001).  Students indicated that when they use the Internet, they are significantly more active than when they are learning in general.  T-tests that compared pre- and post-learning style preferences indicated students’ learning style preferences did not change across the semester.  Chi-square tests showed no significant differences between learning style and gender or ethnicity.

10:30 a.m. - 11:20 a.m.

Chair:  Cynthia M. Gettys, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

An Analysis of Elementary Preservice Teacher Attitudes Toward Two Different Methods Course Formats

Ava F. Pugh, Fred H. Groves, and Jerrilene Washington, University of Louisiana at Monroe

            The Louisiana Blue Ribbon Commision on Teacher Quality recently created sweeping changes to the state's requirements for teacher education programs. Because of these new state regulations, the number of courses in an elementary education methods "block" was reduced from four to two courses for the fall 2000/spring 2001 academic year. Because these courses were collapsed, the potential loss of in-depth instruction became a concern. These new methods courses decreased on-campus instructional time. However, they increased time in on-site field experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the differences in the opinions of preservice teachers concerning the effectiveness of these new methods classes compared to the previous ones.

            Students anonymously completed a 31-item questionnaire each semester after they received their grades at the conclusion of the course block. For this particular study, only those questions pertaining to the students' sense of having been well prepared for four content areas (science, math, social studies, and language arts) were analyzed. A total of 144 students participated from fall 1999 through spring 2001. The means and standard deviations were determined for each question and for each semester, and t-tests were conducted to compare data on the two different formats.

            A number of differences in attitudes were found. During one middle semester (fall, 2000), student attitudes dropped significantly. However, comparisons of the other semesters revealed an overall improvement in attitudes, thought to be because of the increase in field experience time provided by the new two-course format.

The Planning Process for Preservice Teachers: Do Lesson Plans Evolve from Objectives or Does the Lesson Plan Determine the Objectives?

Patricia K. Lowry and Judy Hale McCrary, Jacksonville State University

            The purpose of this study was to determine the thought processes and steps of lesson planning by preservice elementary education majors.  The sample consisted of 175 students during a fall semester.

            Because of the time necessary to write out instructional objectives, students often resist by stating, "I don't see why we have to do this."  Yet, an important component of lesson planning is the development of instructional objectives. Educators teach students to write objectives first and then develop ideas for the lesson plan.  This research centered on the thought processes of students to determine if they developed objectives first or if they began with a general idea followed by objectives.

            A questionnaire was developed to gather appropriate data.  It consisted of questions designed to determine how the preservice teacher viewed the lesson planning process and focused on lesson plan ideas, lesson objectives, and other components of the lesson plan.  Background information was also collected for students to determine their year in the education program and to determine teaching methods courses completed.  A cross-case analysis was used to determine the results.

            The findings indicated that the majority of students began with an idea for the lesson plan and then developed the instructional objectives to implement the lesson.  The findings also indicated differences in thought processes relating to their education year in the program.

            Seniors stated that they felt more comfortable developing the objective first than they did the previous year as juniors.  An implication for future teachers was that the more experience they have in developing lesson plans, the more comfortable they will feel about developing objectives first.

Using Written Reflection to Identify Preservice Teachers' Active‑Instructional Knowledge During Mathematics Mentoring

James D. Johnston, Harding University

            The purpose of this study was to identify and analyze preservice teachers’ weekly written reflections during a seven-week mathematics mentoring experience titled, Community Mathematics (a Toyota TIME grant).

            Community Mathematics is a project that allows volunteers to assist fifth-grade students in developing appreciation of “real” mathematics.  Mentors advised teams of four to six students for a 30-minute, weekly session. 

            The data for this research report originated from written comments (1,000+) collected from 30 college students in a Science/Math Integration methods course. The principal researcher was the professor of the course.  Preservice teachers reflected on weekly mentoring episodes by completing the After-Mentoring Reflection Form (AMRF).  Reflections on questions that revealed how well mentors thought the session went and what was applicable to future teaching became the focus of this paper.

            Prospective teachers made statements regarding instructional practice, instructional strategies, student participation, student motivation, and collegiality. The changing nature of prospective teachers’ beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics instruction, group work, and teaching in general also emerged. Seventy-eight percent of the 117 statements of what went “differently” in the session concerned classroom-techniques. Thirty-six percent of the 120 statements about what was learned and applicable to future teaching centered on student success rather than classroom techniques (22%).

            The study suggested that a formal reflection instrument is useful in identifying and tracking prospective teachers changing pedagogical and epistemological perceptions during field experiences.  An additional supposition of this study recognized that identifying “active” instructional belief is a first step in developing field experiences that confront the theory-laden instructional beliefs held by preservice teachers.  The AMRF provided evidence that field experiences can confront preconceived notions about teaching and learning leading to better educators.

Chair: Gail Snipes, Jackson State University

Assessing Performance Outcomes in Comprehensive Examinations for Graduates in Educational Leadership Programs

Jerry Brooksher Gee, Nicholls State University

            Professors in Educational Leadership programs have in the past utilized performance based outcomes as a partial means of assessing degrees to which graduate students have reached pre‑set standards and objectives.  Additionally, a significant number of accreditating agencies and state boards of education are moving toward performance based assessment. Difficulty exists in constructing master’s degree comprehensive examinations that reflect performance rather than traditional content forms of assessment:  "What the candidate should be able to do" rather than "What the candidate should know" concerning educational leadership. 

            The purpose of this study was:  (1) to compare graduate candidates enrolled in an Educational Leadership program, taking written comprehensive content-based examinations with graduate candidates taking performance based examinations, with and without computers, and (2) to reflect on the strengths and weaknesses found in the implementation of each.

            The methodology in this study involved perceptions of 33 graduation candidates enrolled in a master’s degree educational leadership program during the 2000 spring, summer, and fall sessions, and the 2001 spring semester.   Twenty‑one candidates were administered examinations of traditional content format, and 12 candidates were assessed using a performance-based comprehensive examination.  Of the 12 performances-based examinees, six used computers.

            The results of the study revealed that apparently little difficulty existed in problem solving within an administrative framework.  Standards and performance objectives relating to educational leadership were effectively evidenced using prioritizing simulations and analysis of case studies and by posing situations as examples at the synthesis level.  Changes in the format of the comprehensive examination, in addition to the utilization of computers in administrating the examinations, also appeared to facilitate the process. 

GRE Scores as Predictors of Students' Performance in Selected Graduate Education Courses

Jesus Tanguma, University of Houston at Clear Lake

            A number of studies have examined the predictive validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) for students’ performance across several settings (e.g., master’s programs in psychology or education). In most studies, the criterion variable being examined has been the students’ cumulative graduate grade point average. However, although less frequently, other criterion variables examined include grades in specific courses, grades in comprehensive examinations, time to complete master’s degree, graduation versus nongraduation, and faculty ratings of interpersonal skills.

            The purpose of this study was to examine the predictive validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) for performance in a statistics and measurement course. The study reviewed results and methods from previous research regarding the predictive validity of the GRE-verbal, GRE-quantitative, and GRE-total scores, as well as undergraduate grade point average (UGPA) scores regarding performance in a statistics and measurement class. The criterion variable was the grade obtained in the statistics and measurement class (Grade). The subjects for the study were master’s-level students from an upper-level university in the southeastern Texas area.

            The means and standard deviations for each predictor and criterion variable were presented. Additionally, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients between each predictor variable and the criterion variable were also presented. As evidenced in the table of correlations, the grade obtained in the class was statistically significantly correlated with GRE-quantitative (p < 0.05), as well as with GRE-total (p < 0.01), but was not statistically significantly correlated with GRE-verbal (p = 0.050) or undergraduate GPA (p > 0.05).

The University Writing Requirement ‑ A Study of the Reliability of Scores

Qaisar Sultana, Eastern Kentucky University

            The capstone of the Kentucky Educational Reform Act, 1990, is its comprehensive accountability system.  The Writing Portfolio in grades four, eight, and 12 is a major component of this accountability system.  The Writing Portfolio was expected to improve the writing skills of Kentucky's high school graduates.  The university professors are, however, noticing deterioration in the writing skills of their students. 

            A study was conducted to compare the pre-and post-KERA students' scores on the University Writing Requirement (UWR), mandated of all undergraduate degree students at this university upon completion of 60 credit hours.  The study was presented at the MSERA conference in 2000.  This proposal was a sequel of the study.  This study examined the reliability of scores given to students' essays by the UWR readers.  Fifty essays from 1989 and 1997 each, randomly selected, were scored by UWR readers in 2000.  Scores given by the UWR readers in1989 and 1997 were compared with the scores given to the same essays by the UWR readers in 2000.  

            A Pearson coefficient of correlation of .49 and .78, respectively, was found on the 1989 and 1997 UWR scores.  Because the correlation for each group of essays was low, further statistical analyses were performed.  The mean scores given by the UWR readers in 2000 were slightly higher for both groups, 1989 and 1997.  Group means were computed and subjected to t tests.  No significant differences were found. 

            It was concluded that the correlation of scores given by the UWR scorers has dropped with the passage of time, .78 between 1997 and 2000 and .49 between 1989 and 2000.  Though not significant, there was some inflation in scores assigned by the UWR readers in 2000.

Chair: Douglas E. Masini, East Tennessee State University

Educating Language‑Minority Students: Guidelines for Administrators

Michael S. Mills, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            Language-minority student enrollment has increased at a dramatic rate in the United States, significantly outpacing total K-12 enrollment. This increasing number is significant because the language barrier of these children is exacerbating the inequities of their education. Unfortunately, no certainty exists about what an effective and meaningful education should be for language-minority students, and no clarity has existed in language education policy in public schools in the United States.

            The purpose of the study was to trace the history of language policy in the United States and to explore related federal litigation. The study identified legislative and case law trends within the context of language-minority education, including bilingual and English-only education, and subsequently extracted principles for school administrators and education policymakers. A major piece of the research methodology was the longitudinal case analysis method presented by Statsky and Wernet (1995), who stated that a case analysis not only determines the relevancy but also the applicability of a legal case to issues of interest. The case analysis method was used to make a determination of language-minority education policy trends and the education rights of language-minority students.

            Cases were organized by decade and federal court district, from which 17 principles were gleaned from 31 federal cases and various federal statutes and regulations related to language-minority education in the public schools. These principles have been designed to guide educational administrators and policymakers in areas related to language-minority education.

The Perceptions of Administrators and Teachers About the Effectiveness of Character Education

Lelon Davidson and Laura Stokes, University of North Alabama

            The purpose of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of character education based on the perceptions of administrators and teachers in selected elementary, middle, and high schools.

            Character education has grown out of the public's concern over the disturbing trends in youth conduct.  Since November 1, 1995, Alabama schools must teach character education.  However, little research has existed to determine the effectiveness of this program.  This study provided insight into educators' perceptions of character education's effectiveness.

            The data were collected in May 2001.  The sample included nine elementary administrators, seven middle school administrators, and 33 high school administrators.  A total of 210 teachers were in the sample:  73 from elementary, 33 from middle, and 104 from high school level.  The data collection instrument included four descriptive questions and 12 items arranged on a five‑point Likert scale.

            The data were then analyzed to determine the mean of each item on the Likert scale to ascertain administrators’ and teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of character education.  ANOVAs were conducted to test for possible relationships between the descriptive data and the Likert-scale items.  To determine if differences of perceptions existed between high school administrators and elementary administrators and high school teachers and elementary teachers, t tests were used.

            The level of school did not seem to affect the perceptions of administrators or teachers about the effectiveness of character education.  No significant difference existed between the perceptions of high school educators and educators in elementary school.  The content area seemed to be the most important variable.  In all cases, the "business/vocational" group was the most positive, followed by the "academic required" group, then the "academic elective" group.  The three groups were significantly different on seven questions and on the overall instrument.

Action Research in Supervision 7304: A Mentoring Approach to New Teachers

Jo Sykes Chesser, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            A call for 2000 additional teachers in Arkansas to fill teaching positions for the school year 2001-2002 brought concern for the number of new teachers that would be entering the teaching profession. Because statistics have indicated that numerous teachers leave the teaching profession within five years, mentoring for new teachers was more urgent than ever. Action research in a university classroom for educational supervision provided graduate students an opportunity to pilot test and critique a new instrument for the principal/supervisor to quickly check essential skills in novice teachers so that mentors had a place to begin collaborative efforts to develop and strengthen teacher behavior.

            The EDAS 7304 course, Supervision of the Learning Services, focused on recording and coding the verbal data in a teaching situation in order to learn formative evaluation and recommendations skills. Groups of four to five graduate students recorded and analyzed another class member's teaching lesson using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Differences in the analysis and interpretations of the same lesson caused the instructor to apply action research methods for the remainder of the semester. The end result was an instrument that provided agreement between class members about teacher strengths and weaknesses in two areas that research has indicated are vital to student achievement:  (1) questioning types and (2) student verbal reinforcement. Through the cooperation of a nearby teacher and her classroom, a 15-minute lesson was videotaped and the final examination used the new instrument that was titled “A Supervisor's Quick Check of New Teacher Instructional Behavior.”  The findings of the class agreement on the use of this instrument were presented, as well as the literature review findings that preceded and continued to support the value of this approach.

Ernest A. Rakow and Gregory Ginn, The University of Memphis

            The purpose of this training session was to teach the similarities and differences among the various approaches for performing multiple comparisons of means in the context of one factor analysis of variance.  Multiple comparison procedures were illustrated for all pairwise comparison, multiple step-down procedures, and general comparison procedures.  Following the definition of multiple comparisons, the relevant types of error rates were discussed and compared.  Tables were created to illustrate the relationships among the types of error rates.  The t, F, and range statistics were compared as used for testing the statistical significance of differences between means (and applied in a confidence interval approach).  The relevant definitions of standard errors of the mean were examined.  Examples of means and variances from research studies were used to make comparisons of various approaches that include orthogonal contrasts, Tukey's honestly significant differences, Dunn/Bonferroni test, Scheffe test, and most others calculated in SPSS.  The similarities and differences between each approach were discussed.  Doing analyses during the workshop by using excel and/or SPSS illustrated the impacts of changes in the example data.  Participants were encouraged to suggest modifications in the data to compare the effect on the various procedures.

Session 11.5   SELF PERCEPTION / GENDER ISSUES  Riverside East

Chair: Anthony J. Guarino, Auburn University

Emotional Intelligence: The Effect of Gender, GPA, and Ethnicity

Martha Tapia, Berry College, and George E. Marsh II, The University of Alabama

            The effects of gender, GPA, and ethnicity on emotional intelligence were examined by use of an inventory called the Emotional Intelligence Inventory Revised.  The inventory was completed by 319 students (162 boys and 157 girls) at a college-preparatory bilingual school in Mexico City, and data were analyzed using a multivariate factorial model with four factors of Emotional Intelligence as dependent variables (empathy, utilization of feelings, handling relationships, and self-control). Multivariate analysis was performed. 

            There was an overall significant main effect of gender and a significant two-way interaction of gender*gpa.  The gender*gpa interaction was disordinal and, therefore, the significant main effect was not further analyzed.  The interaction was found to be significant in Handling Relationships and self-control.  In Handling Relationships, GPA levels influenced male students.  Male students in the 3.00-3.49 range scored lower than all other male students with GPA greater than 2.00. In self-control, GPA levels influenced female students.  Female students with a GPA of 3.5-4.0 scored significantly higher than all other female students with GPA below 3.00.

How Well Do Non-Cognitive Indicators Predict Academic Performance?

Monica Zozone and Gary W. Ritter, University of Arkansas

            One of the primary problems facing those evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in schools is that of choosing appropriate outcome measures.  Often, program operators in schools hear positive feedback from program participants.  Based on such anecdotal evidence, program operators may believe that their programs are having the intended positive impacts on children.  For example, in a 1998-99 study of a university/community partnership that placed nearly 400 college-age tutors in public elementary schools, teachers and program operators were convinced that the program was having the intended impact on children.  However, in the discussions involving the design of the evaluation (in which the evaluators and the program staff collaborated), key program stakeholders voiced deep concerns that the program benefits would not be captured in an evaluation utilizing such measurable outcomes as grades and standardized test scores.  As one teacher put it, "Yes, I believe positive changes are occurring for the tutored children.  Will these changes show up in the test scores?  I don't think so."

            As a result of these concerns, the evaluation team chose to include several "non-cognitive" outcome measures related to student motivation and self-esteem.  The rationale was that the variables measuring these non-cognitive traits were intervening variables. Changes in these would likely lead to changes in academic performance in the future. 

            Now that the evaluation of the program has been completed, academic data from the 1999-2000 school year and data on these "non-cognitive" traits from the prior year (1998-99) have been established.  Thus, using the dataset of 396 elementary school students in a large urban public school system, this paper addressed the research question:  Do high levels of student motivation and self-esteem (as measured by established scales) lead to high academic performance in future years?

A Comparison of Self Perceptions of Self Esteem, Verbal Ability, and Mathematical Ability Among Seventh-Grade Males and Females in Single Sex and Coed Settings

Kathleen Campbell, Academy of the Sacred Heart (New Orleans); Lisa Taylor, Mississippi State University; and Elizabeth Cerise LaForge, University of New Orleans

            Building self-esteem is important for both males and females in bolstering concepts about self and peers, as well as academic subjects such as English and mathematics.  Because schools play a major role in developing and maintaining students' self-esteem concepts, many studies have centered on which environments contribute to more positive self-concepts. Gender research over the last two decades suggests that females flourish in single-sex classrooms because the teaching styles in all female settings tend to accommodate the learning styles of females, thus avoiding the gender-biased (toward males) teacher behaviors in coed settings. Recent studies seem to suggest that males in single-sex classrooms may also have higher self‑concepts than do their male peers in coed settings.  The purpose of the present study was to determine whether single-sex environments contribute to more positive attitudes toward self‑esteem and verbal and mathematical abilities in males and/or females.

            This study compared the self-concept of seventh-grade females enrolled in a private girls' school and seventh-grade males enrolled in a private boys' school with seventh-grade males and females enrolled in a private, coeducational.  Subjects completed a self-concept inventory, and their responses on the domains of general self-esteem, verbal ability, and mathematical ability were analyzed, using a multivariate analysis of variance, to determine whether classroom setting was a significant factor in explaining the differences in the three domains among the various groups.

            A discussion of the results included generalizations concerning the philosophical differences between single-sex and coed schools, as well as pedagogical classroom practices.

Chair: William F. Brescia, University of Arkansas

Principal and Counselor Perceptions of the Role of High School Counselor

Dennis C. Zuelke, J. Gordon Nelson, and Janell D. Wilson, Jacksonville State University

            The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of agreement between Alabama principals and counselors in 2000 on the role of the high school counselor.  Considerable literature exists on the preceived role of the guidance counselor in K-12 public schools (Mason, Dyal, and Meadows, 1999; Grunner, Pelletier, and Williams, 1994; Hardesty and Dillard, 1994; Poidevant, 1991; and Miller, 1988).  Less literature concerns the comparative perceptions of principals and counselors on the role of high school guidance counselors (McDowell, 1995; Frank, 1986; Bonebrake and Borgers, 1984; and Mott, 1973). 

            The survey instrument included 36 Likert-type response statements based on the Alabama state position description for guidance counselors.  Cronbach's Alpha reliabilities were above .85 for the instrument.  A total of 206 high school counselors and 79 high school principals returned usable responses.  A one-way analysis of variance was utilized to determine significant differences in perceptions for 11 of the response statements.  The principals' mean score was higher than the counselors' mean score for six of those statements.  Except for two of the 36 statements, common agreement existed among the respondents that counselors performed the identified tasks sometimes or often.  Significant differences involved the extent to which tasks were accomplished sometimes or often.  Principals perceived that counselors did more to improve classroom teaching and learning directly, provided more individual career counseling, and attended more professional conferences and workshops than counselors perceived that they did. 

            The findings showed that respondents confirmed the accuracy of the state's position description and indicated congruence between the perceptions of principals and counselors on the various role tasks of the high school guidance counselor.  The findings also indicated more principal and counselor agreement on the number of role tasks high school counselors performed than in the previous literature.

Ann D. Chapman, Eastern Kentucky University

            ASERVIC, a division of the American Counseling Association concerned with values and religion, has developed national standards regarding the role of spirituality in counseling and counselor education.  For many counselor educators, especially those in public institutions, spirituality has not been considered an appropriate academic topic.  However, it is now essential to begin to think about the impact that ASERVIC's initiative in the area of spirituality could have on counseling programs.

            In this study, student descriptions of their personal spirituality were analyzed for religiosity versus spirituality and for wellness versus dysfunction.  The results of this content analysis and a review of related literature were used to develop implications for counselor education.

            Data for this study were collected from 70 graduate students enrolled in counseling classes at a regional public university.  Students in two sections of a Mental Health and Personal Adjustment course and one section of a Counseling Diverse Populations course were asked to "Write a detailed paragraph describing your personal spirituality."  A content analysis of the students' paragraphs based on Westgate's research‑based descriptions (1996) of religiosity (focus on behaviors), spirituality (focus on understanding), spiritual wellness (focus on meaning, intrinsic, transcendent, or community), and spiritual dysfunction (focus on extrinsic or punishment) was performed.

            The results indicated that a majority of the students' paragraphs had a focus on spirituality and on spiritual wellness.  However, almost one‑third of the paragraphs focused entirely on religiosity and over 15% revealed a lack of spiritual wellness.  Approximately 10% of the paragraphs indicated that the students did not recognize their spirituality because it lacked traditional religiosity.  The result of this content analysis was integrated with information from a review of related literature.  The resulting seven programmatic implications for counselor education were discussed. 

H. Michael Crowson, The University of Alabama

            Research on epistemic motivation within the social psychological literature has consistently demonstrated the role dispositional need for closure (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994) plays in the knowledge acquisition process and the construction of social judgments. This construct specifically refers to a personality-based, non-directional motivation to acquire quick, simple, and certain answers to problems and to experience ambiguous circumstances as being distasteful and something to be avoided. Thus, this construct holds particular relevance for the hypothesis-generation and testing processes associated with knowledge construction activity. Interestingly, despite its obvious relevance to the learning process in general, this construct has not been utilized within educational research. One function of this paper was to introduce this concept to the education literature.

            Secondly, although research on need for closure has demonstrated reliable individual differences on this factor using Kruglanski’s Need for Closure Scale, Neuberg et al. (1997) have raised serious questions regarding the dimensionality of the scale. Specifically, the Need for Closure Scale has been challenged on the grounds that it is a multidimensional measure that diverges from Kruglanski’s original conception of the need for closure construct. The second purpose of this paper was to provide research that supports Neuberg et al.’s (1997) assertion while also suggesting how the scale may still be profitably used in educational research. The author reported findings from exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic procedures utilized to explore the scale’s properties directly followed by data on its relationship to several other measures used in educational research.

Chair: Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University

A Review of Van Hiele Constructs and a Parsimonious Model for Geometric Thought

Robert M. Capraro, Texas A&M University

            All too often measurement instruments are accepted for educational purposes with little or no review of the instrumentation and may become prominent with little or no statistical exploration after a few authors publish results. This is in sharp contrast to instruments used in counseling and psychology where there is often detailed and in-depth exploration.

            The Van Hieles proposed the five levels of geometric thought (Visual, Analysis, Informal Deduction, Deduction, and Rigor) in 1959 that were accepted in the United States around the 1970s where it is the prominent factor influencing our geometry curriculum (Hoffer & Hoffer, 1992). Carroll developed an instrument to quantitatively determine Van Hiele levels (0-2). The levels describe the thinking process that one is using and not the knowledge one possesses. Therefore, the levels describe how one thinks and one’s ideas in geometric contexts. As one progresses from one level to the next, a greater capacity for geometry content knowledge is possible. The importance of the instrument for educators is that its results can assist in lesson planning and developing a scope and sequence to provide developmentally appropriate activities.  To date no additional literature has reported internal consistency or theoretical constructs that underlie the instrument.

            The purpose of this paper was to assist in providing additional analyses of the van Hiele Levels Test by Carroll (1998).  Preliminary results from 297 sixth-grade students resulted in an overall coefficient alpha of .74. An additional 90 sixth-grade students participated in a fall administration (September 2001) to complete the confirmatory factor analysis. Carroll (1998) identified the instrument as having three levels or factors that varied according to predetermined theoretical research by the Van Hieles (1959). Preliminary results indicated more than three factors that were supported by qualitative interviews and exploratory factor analysis (EFA). A more parsimonious model was suggested.

Construct Validation and a More Parsimonious Mathematics Beliefs Scales

Mary Margaret Capraro, Texas A&M University

            Beliefs are the bedrock and cornerstone at the heart of our actions (Corey, 1937). These beliefs are the best indicators of the decisions individuals make throughout their lives (Dewey, 1933). Teacher beliefs are instrumental in defining teacher pedagogical and content tasks and for processing information relevant to those tasks (Nespor, 1987). Beliefs are mental representations of reality that guide thought and behavior (Parajares, 1992) and are implicit in teacher discourse, teacher objectives, and teacher practices.

            In the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000), the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics state in their “Teaching Principle” that “Effective teachers realize that the decisions they make shape students’ mathematical dispositions and can create a rich setting for learning” (NCTM, 2000, p.18).

            For the purposes of this study, a Likert-type instrument, entitled Mathematical Beliefs Scales (Fennema, Carpenter, & Loef 1990), was used to measure the mathematical beliefs of teachers. Originally, the researchers designed the instrument to measure three subscales:  (1) the beliefs of teachers about how children learn mathematics, (2) about how mathematics should be taught, and (3) about the relationship between learning and concepts and procedures. After administering the Beliefs Scales to 123 inservice teachers and 58 preservice teachers, a factor analysis was performed to re-examine patterns in the data set to determine what the instrument actually measured. Preliminary results of this analysis led to not only a determination of the factors measured by the instrument but to reducing the original 48 items to a modified Revised Scale that would be a more user-friendly version of the Mathematical Beliefs Scales.

The Improvement of Spatial Visualization: A Case Study

Rebecca R. Robichaux, Southeastern Louisiana University

            The participation in spatial visualization activities during the elementary/middle school years has been shown to be a predictor of strong visualization skills of undergraduates majoring in architecture, mathematics, mathematics education, and mechanical engineering.  Such visualization skills have been linked with success in those respective careers.  It has also been shown that educators tend to focus on those topics within their disciplines in which they themselves are strong. Thus, if elementary/middle school students are to be provided with meaningful spatial visualization experiences, then their teachers should have strong spatial visualization skills or at least be aware of their own spatial visualization ability.

            This qualitative study examined the spatial visualization ability of a senior, undergraduate elementary education major interested in teaching middle school geometry.  The purposes of this case study were:  (1) to gain a better understanding of the thought processes that occur as one engages in spatial visualization activities and (2) to improve the spatial visualization of the participant. 

            Data were collected through the use of pre- and post-tests, a background questionnaire, 10 audiotaped sessions during which spatial visualization activities were completed, and a final questionnaire regarding the benefits of the study from the participant’s perspective.  The case study methodology focused on two components: (1) the development of spatial visualization ability and (2) the use of these spatial visualization activities in teaching middle school mathematics.  From the analysis of the data, themes within each of the two above components emerged.  With respect to one such theme, “the use of the word ‘see.’” The participant tended to describe her thought processes in terms of what she “saw” in her mind.  All themes and the implications of the findings with respect to developing the spatial visualization skills of undergraduates and the use of manipulatives in the mathematics classroom were discussed.

Session 12.3   PROTOCOLS FOR DECISION MAKING: LEARNING TO MAKE DEFENSIBLE JUDGMENTS ABOUT VEXING REAL LIFE PROBLEMS (Training, 1 hour) Palisades

Trainers:         Vincent R. McGrath and Jack Blendinger, Mississippi State University

            This session was concerned with how learners developed assumptions and concepts of justification from their experiences.  The presenters centered on reflective thinking as a corollary to all learning. Emphasis was placed on identifying those thinking protocols typical of learners at various stages in their intellectual and emotional development. Current research has suggested that when educators recognize that the language of justification is framed by social and genetic forces and these positions vary little over time, then they could design practical lessons that match learner's structured views of the world and assist the learner to develop reasoned protocols for decision making. A synthesis of several judgment models was discussed.  The presenters centered on the process by which educators have discovered how individuals learn to make defensible judgments about their vexing real-life problems.

            Participants made applications based on several judgment models and developed strategies to stimulate thinking and promote safe learning climates for open discussion of difficult social problems that individuals encounter daily. Participants discussed the possibility for using reflective judgment interviews to identify how individuals use knowledge to justify their views of ill-structured problems, problems for which there are no right or wrong answers--some ethical and moral issues. Based on a dialogue, participants proposed at least one exercise by which they learned to wrestle with certainty and uncertainty in order to discover appropriate procedures for confronting and resolving perplexity. Democratic practices of negotiation and compromise for resolving problems were reviewed and discussed. When teachers revisit the recent psychological research on cognitive and moral stages of development, they become sensitive to certain invariant thinking constructs. With that recognition, teachers can begin to develop curricula, select text books, prepare lessons, and design evaluation instruments more appropriately matched to their students’ lived realities.

            Participants discussed the possible uses for thinking interview protocols by which learners revealed how they have perceived and attempted to solve ill-structured social dilemmas. They discussed the value of judgment models as common measures of thinking when compared to formal logical operations, post-formal reasoning, and critical-thinking practices. Presenters shared model responses from students to vexing problems to show how students typical of several developmental stages responded to open-ended questions and how they justified their responses.  Participants have shared personal insights about creating a learning atmosphere conducive to thinking about both content and context of their experiences. Transparencies, worksheets, and posters/charts were used in the session.

Session 12.4   DISPLAYS Riverside West and 2^nd Floor Lobby

Interpersonal Reciprocity: A Quantifiable Construct

Debra T. Breaux, Katherine Dooley, and Geraldine Smith-Mallette, Mississippi State University

            Using an instrument created specifically to analyze both the supervisor and supervisee's perceptions of the social influence processes relative to their supervisory relationship, this study examined the constuct validity of The Supervision Relationship Survey, SRS, (Breaux, 2000), as a quantifiable method of measuring interpersonal reciprocity. The SRS is a multi-indicator, five-subscale, Likert measure, using summative-scale scoring in an attempt to reduce measurement error while maintaining a parsimonious representation of the multi-dimensional concepts of interpersonal reciprocity. Results from survey packets mailed to 135 CACREP universities were used to perform a confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL, statistical package used). These results, along with other psychometric properties of the SRS, were discussed.

            Research has demonstrated the need to review all contextual variables influencing behaviors pertinent to devising strategies in supervision. Because individuals bring interpersonal characteristics, knowledge, abilities, and cultural values into supervisory relationships, individuals' unique characteristics help to establish its relational foundation. These reciprocal interactions are viewed within the context of social behaviors, social recognition, and social problem solving. Because the interpersonal nature of the supervisory relationship is influenced by, and influences, the interpersonal and social contexts for all parties involved, incorporating a social analysis into supervision could help both the supervisor and the supervisee clarify political dynamics that can promote, or adversely affect, the process of supervision. Carefully incorporating the concept of change over time as indicative of a measurable social influence continuum may allow empirical data within which to construct personalized developmental models for supervision.

YAPP: Yet Another Power Program

David T. Morse, Mississippi State University

            Since Cohen published reviews of the power of published studies 40 years ago, the level of awareness of the educational research community of the issue of statistical power has increased, especially if the number of publications on the topic is any indication.  However, even recent reviews suggest that researchers are frequently not using the concept of power in planning their study.  Too small a sample size will yield an unacceptably high risk of a Type II error, whereas too large a sample size is wasteful of resources and can flag trivially small differences as statistically significant.

            This presentation described a computer program written to accomplish three goals: (1) to compute power or sample size for a given scenario, (2) to provide such estimates with high accuracy, and (3) to provide such values for a wide variety of statistical tests.  YAPP, available without cost, can solve for any of the following: (1) power, (2) sample size, (3) effect size, or (4) alpha (Type I risk) level, given the other values. 

            Comparisons of YAPP showed that it yielded estimates as accurate or more accurate than other such programs, even commercially-available packages.  Examples of its use were provided, with sample output.  With a simple, free tool such as YAPP, researchers could quickly, easily, and accurately plan a study so as to have a suitable level of statistical power.  YAPP may also be used as a teaching tool for statistics or research courses.

Strategies and Resources to Recruit a Diverse Faculty

Jane H. McHaney, University of Central Arkansas, and Victoria McLain, Kennesaw State University

            While our nation's schools are becoming increasingly represented by a diverse student body, the majority of the teaching force is becoming increasingly white and non-diverse.  If one third of a nation was minority by the year 2000, it is imperative that learners from these backgrounds receive the education needed to respect, understand, and accept diversity in order to continue to advance the democratic way of life for all of its citizens.  Recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty and staff continues to be a challenge to most colleges and universities. 

            This display session shared successful strategies currently being implemented at two state universities in two southern states. Once faculty are employed it is critical that they receive support.  Resources need to be available to support opportunities to expand scholarship, professional development, service, and teaching. This presentation described a mentoring plan for minority faculty, and a handout was provided that outlined other successful strategies and resources for recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty.

From Eggs to Baby Birds: The Dean's Office Hatches into a Classroom

Judy Hale McCrary and Sheila Anne Webb, Jacksonville State University

            The purpose of this study was to determine the observational skills of a select group of four-year-olds.  The sample consisted of 10 children from the child development center located on campus.  Young children are curious to learn about their world.  They need events to experience what they have learned and opportunity to record them.  Using art is a way for children to represent their world.  This research focused on the observational skills of a select group of children in an effort to determine what they knew about their world and what they considered important.

            Two finches were placed in the dean’s office.  After eggs were visible, a group of four-year-olds were invited to come into the dean’s office for a visit.  They were encouraged to look into the birdcage and observe the parents and the eggs.  After the visit, the children recorded their observations on paper.  After the eggs hatched, the children were invited back into the dean’s office for a second visit.  They were to observe the parents and the baby birds. Observations were recorded on paper.  A cross-case analysis was used to determine the results.

            The findings indicated that the drawings of the first and second visit were noticeably different.  The artwork indicated that the children had learned pictorial images for birds.  They had also observed more details within the birdcage.  The children's observations included elements from the dean’s office ‑ an observation they had made without being prompted.

            Art reflects what children have observed about their world.  It is a way for them to symbolize information.  An implication for teachers was that young children need opportunities to observe their world and teachers should be encouraged to broaden the role of art in the classroom. 

The Boys and Girls Club Campus Experience: A Service-Learning Effort

Sean Forbes and Cynthia J. Reed, Auburn University, and Wanda Lewis and Salazek D. Spratling, Boys and Girls Clubs of Greater Lee County (Alabama)

            In general, service‑learning has been defined as "an experiential approach to education that involves students in a wide range of activities that are of benefit to others, and uses the experiences generated to advance the curricula goals" (Waterman, 1995, p. xi). Though providing students with practical experience is not a new idea to the educational community (Dewey, 1917), service‑learning as a pedagogy enjoys increased popularity among college campuses (Whang & Forbes, 2001). Among the reasons, service‑learning exposes students to the varying needs of our society and practical application of course material. As society becomes more and more inclusive, preservice teachers not exposed to the multiple realities of a diverse society are likely to enter the work force without the necessary skills to adequately educate their students (Myers & Pickeral, 1997; Wade, 1997). 

            In the past two years the local Boys and Girls clubs and a college of education at a land-grant university have developed a partnership built on the benefits of service-learning. As the work evolved, a campus experience was established for the members of the Boys and Girls Club. The program was designed to meet two ends: (1) provide preservice teachers the opportunity to develop their professional skills in a "real‑world" setting and (2) provide relief for a club system that was operating at or above capacity. Meeting three days a week, the clubs' activities were largely university-student designed and implemented.  A summary of the students' work and the children's reaction to the programs was presented.

            The broader interest, however, was to outline the steps taken to secure a partnership of this kind from four, often unique, perspectives, in hopes of generating a discussion of the philosophical rationale for and benefits and potential pitfalls of community-based partnerships.

Connecting With Our Past: A Walking Tour of a Civil War Cemetery

Judy Hale McCrary and Patricia K. Lowry, Jacksonville State University

            The study examined the perspectives of 85 preservice elementary education majors to determine: (1) the extent historical objects relate to our lives and (2) the level of understanding about our community's roots.

            Textbooks are important, and they provide basic information for students.  Understanding how the material relates to students’ daily lives can be a problem.  By extending learning beyond the textbook, students can broaden their perspectives.  One such technique is the exploration of historical objects.  This research focused on a field trip to a historical cemetery and the perspectives of students.

            A questionnaire was developed and administered prior to and upon the completion of the field trip in order to determine: (1) the extent historical objects relate to our lives and (2) the level of understanding about our community's roots.  A guideline was provided with the information to be gathered from the cemetery.  It included information about the name, gender, age, and occupation of the deceased. Students also completed a crayon rubbing of an interesting tombstone.  Students were provided a self‑guided map of the cemetery and progressed at their own speed.  A cross‑case analysis was used to determine the results.

            The findings indicated that the majority of the students did not realize the significance of visiting an old cemetery until after the field trip, nor did they realize the wealth of information that could be obtained from the cemetery.  Prior to the field trip students stated that a field trip would be beneficial to learning; however, they were not conclusive about the benefits of a trip to a cemetery.  Upon completion of the trip, students maintained the importance of field trips and concluded that a trip to a cemetery offered new information not readily available in textbooks.

Elementary Teachers Use of Multiple Comprehension Strategies

Carolyn P. Casteel, University of South Alabama, and Bess A. Isom, University of Mobile

            This study examined the reading comprehension strategies taught by elementary school teachers to determine:  (1) which comprehension strategies teachers promoted in their teaching of comprehension, (2) what extent multiple comprehension processes (microprocesses, integrative processes, macroprocesses, elaborative processes, and metacognitive processes) were represented within instructional practices, and (3) any differences in the comprehension processes emphasized by early childhood and intermediate grade teachers.

            A model describing five types of comprehension processes was used as the underlying structure to develop a survey of 57 Likert-scale items. The survey was field-tested, and Cronbach’s Alpha was applied, resulting in a coefficient of .93. Random cluster sampling was used to select four schools in different geographic regions, and all teachers in each school were surveyed.  One hundred ninety-two surveys were distributed, and 141 or 74% were returned.

            Data analysis included mean ratings for each item, process, and grade level, as well as composite scores by process and grade level. Differences between early childhood and intermediate teachers’ ratings were analyzed by t tests with equal variances not assumed.

            Results revealed that teachers incorporated strategy instruction to a reasonable degree, and they included strategies within the overlapping multiple comprehension processes with macroprocesses and metacognitive processes receiving the most emphasis. They gave less attention to elaborative processes related to higher order inference and evaluation. Intermediate teachers reported a significantly higher degree of strategy teaching than K-2 teachers. This finding is worthy of further research since reading strategy instruction can be adapted to emergent readers, and instruction on strategies should take place throughout the early grades. The use of strategy instruction at all grade levels remains an issue for preservice and inservice education. This study provided useful preliminary information for analyzing how best to improve comprehension for students by looking at the practices of current teachers.

Middle School Girls and Misconceptions in Physics Concepts

Jan E. Downing, Eastern Kentucky University

            A survey was administered to a group of middle school girls to identify misconceptions they might have about certain fundamental physics concepts. They then attended a mini-course that addressed amusement park physics. The participants spent a day at an amusement park where they recorded data and information of observations made while riding the various rides. After the visit to the amusement park, girls were surveyed once more to determine if the misconceptions had been altered.  The participants attended a final session to address misconceptions.

            This display provided examples of misconceptions middle school girls have about certain physics concepts and also provided physics lessons that could be used to teach middle school children in an amusement park environment. This research project was partially funded by the Mid-South Educational Research Association.

Curriculum Change: Beliefs About Effects of an Integrated Science Curriculum on Students and on Teachers

Barbara A. Salyer, University of South Alabama

            For more than a decade, the science education and scientific communities have espoused scientific literacy as the overarching goal of science education for all students. In response, curriculum developers and publishers have produced curricula and textbooks that offer an integrated, rather than a separate disciplines’ approach, to the sciences. How are these curricula and textbooks received by practitioners who must bring them to life in schools and classrooms?

            This display presented the results of an interpretive study that was designed to explore and describe the beliefs and perspectives of teachers, administrators, and policymakers about teaching an integrated science curriculum. Semi-structured interviews captured the multiplicity of perspectives within a single school district that was in the process of piloting an integrated science curriculum. Study participants functioned in roles that spanned the districts’ hierarchy from middle school teachers to superintendents. Participants shared their beliefs and perceptions about the effects of the new curriculum on students and on science teachers. Interviews were analyzed to allow comparisons of beliefs both within each role group (teachers, principals, curriculum coordinator, and assistant superintendent), as well as across role groups. Data displays were used to present the descriptive data in an organized, compressed form.

            Common beliefs about favorable impacts on students included the belief that students will learn more because they will be able to see how the sciences relate and the curriculum will seem more relevant. Among high school teachers, the belief that students would not have enough content knowledge to succeed in college if they studied the integrated curriculum was a common perception of unfavorable effects. These and other results of the study have implications for the goal of scientific literacy and for states and districts involved in curriculum change.

12:30 p.m. - 1:20 p.m.

Chair: Beverly M. Klecker, Kentucky Department of Education

Teacher Perceptions of Principals: A New Instrument

Otis K. LoVette and Susie Watts, University of Louisiana at Monroe

            Louisiana, like many states, is involved in major reform efforts to improve student achievement. Educators at all levels are being held accountable for student performance. The school principal, according to research on effective schools, is a key factor in improving student performance at the school level. Assessment methods for evaluating the performance of school administrators are needed to assist these educators in improving their leadership skills.

            The purpose of this study was to pilot a survey instrument that was designed to assess the behaviors of school principals as perceived by teachers.  Teachers from 12 schools (N=251) and the principals from each school (N=12) completed the instrument in the spring of 2001. All subjects were employed by one school system in northeastern Louisiana.

            Data analysis compared the responses of the teachers at each school to the responses of the respective principals. Responses suggested perceived strengths and weaknesses in the principals' leadership behaviors and may identify areas for professional and personal growth. The internal reliability of the survey instrument was determined using Cronbach alpha, and six distinct clusters of items were identified by a factor analysis. The survey instrument was also subjected to a panel of faculty members to establish content validity.

What Motivates Individuals to Become Leaders in Public Schools and Higher Education?

Barbara N. Martin and Judy A. Johnson, Southwest Missouri State University, and Marsha Lay, Branson (Missouri) Public Schools

            Research has documented career paths and the processes of administrative selection. Despite a large volume of theory and research, little work has been done towards furthering an understanding of what causes people to set personal goals (Phillips & Gully, 1997). The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine factors perceived to have influenced applicants to apply for leadership positions in public schools and in institutions of higher education.  The research questions were as follows:  (1) What factors affect a candidate's decision to apply for a leadership position? and (2) Are intrinsic or extrinsic motivators more influential in the candidates’ decision to seek leadership?

            Psychological-based explanations for personal goal establishment and eventual attainment have focused on a range of factors.  Vasil (1996), in researching women's career development in academia, found that peoples' perception of confidence in their ability to perform successfully a given behavior provides an internal barrier or motivation to career choice and advancement. As personnel needs of school districts continue to increase, the ability to recruit, secure, and retain becomes difficult. The categorization of motivational factors within the two broad frameworks of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors was the focus of this study.

            The population for this study consisted of educational leaders who had assumed their present position within the last five years. From this list of 150 administrative leaders a random sampling was done resulting in 71 superintendents/ principals and 25 professors.

            Motivating factors identified by seven successful candidates and information from the literature were compiled to develop a survey. The factors identified in the survey instrument were classified as an intrinsic or extrinsic motivational attribute.  The questions were disaggregated to represent perceived intrinsic and extrinsic attributes along with gender profiles in each motivational category and were reported in means and percentages.

            On the basis of analysis the following findings were offered:  (1) as perceived by the participants, male and female respondents rated personal satisfaction and ability to impact education numerically strongest, (2) male leaders and female leaders rated professional reputation as least important of the intrinsic factors, (3) the strongest identified motivating factor by female leaders was their perception that the skills they possess would benefit the hiring institution, (4) females placed higher value on interpersonal relationships in the form of mentors and on flexibility with schedules and use of personal time, (5) males placed a higher value on steps toward career goals and organizational structure of position, and (6) for all participants intrinsic factors were more motivating than extrinsic.

            As a result of the conclusions of this descriptive study, four implications for educators responsible for recruiting, securing, and retaining quality administrative leaders were: (1) leaders seek environments that allow them to initiate change, (2) leaders seek tangible and intangible rewards, (3) leaders seek personally satisfying activities and are motivated by support of peers, and (4) gender differences exist among candidates.

An Investigation of Variables That Influence Teacher Attraction for Principalship

Rose M. Newton, The University of Alabama, and Jeanne Fiene, Western Kentucky. University

            Recent proposals call for community leaders to redesign the principal's role in ways likely to increase the number of teachers willing to seek vacant positions. Such proposals are consistent with job attraction theory, which stipulates that employers faced with a critical shortage of applicants should alter the undesirable aspects of the job. To support efforts to retool the principal's role, it was assessed whether salient features of the job and conditions of the workplace influence teacher attraction to principalship. All full-time professors teaching courses in education administration invited the students enrolled in their classes to complete a survey. The rationale for surveying this population was that many students enrolled in a program leading to principal certification do not seek principalship. Seventy percent (n = 139) of the students enrolled in these courses elected to participate.

            The participating teachers:  (1) completed a demographic data form, (2) used five-point Likert-type scales to indicate the degree to which salient job features (n = 6) and conditions of the workplace (n = 11) influenced their decision making about whether or not to become a principal, and (3) responded to three questions designed to assess their attraction to the position. To analyze the data, the teacher characteristics, teacher ratings of features of the job, and teacher ratings of conditions of the workplace were cast as the independent variables and the additive composite score of teacher responses to the three items were cast as the dependent variable in a hierarchical multiple regression analysis. 

            Teacher attraction to the job varied by gender with females rating principalship less favorably than males. Although features of the job itself enhanced teacher attraction for the principalship, conditions of the workplace mitigated that positive influence. The findings have practical implications for current efforts to redesign the principal's role.

Organizer:      John Mark Trent, Southern Christian University

John Mark Trent, Southern Christian University, and Gerald Halpin and Anthony Guarino, Auburn University

            This study assessed four different statistical analyses to compare and contrast the similarity of results. The four analyses were:  (1) two aggregate variables from eight different measures that are correlated, (2) two aggregate variables correlated after measurement error is controlled, (3) a canonical correlation between five measures of the IV and three measures of the DV, and (4) a structural equation model assessing the relationship between one exogenous latent variable with five indicators with an endogenous latent variable with three indicators. The data set (n = 309) used in this post hoc study was randomly drawn from a larger data set (N = 1,741) collected in 1985 from the third, sixth, and ninth grades in two public school districts within the state of Alabama. Implications for student education, process of selecting proper analysis technique, clarity of interpretable results, and potential for publication were discussed.

            Five independent variables representing Piagetian tasks that grouped 18 subtests into five areas (classification, conservation, imagery, proportional reasoning, and relations) were correlated with three dependent variables assessing academic performance in language, reading, and math. The research question stated that there was a significant multivariate relationship between cognitive developmental levels as measured by An Inventory of Piaget’s Developmental Tasks (IPDT) and competency in reading, language, and mathematics as assessed by the Alabama Basic Competency Tests (BCT).

            An aggregation of the five groupings of the IPDT created the first variable. An aggregation of the three scales of the BCT created the second variable. The correlation coefficient between the aggregation of the IPDT and the BCT was r = .44, p < .001.

            Because measurement error attenuates the correlation between two variables, a formula was devised to adjust the coefficient for the measurement error. The observed correlation coefficient divided by the square root of the product between the Cronbach's alphas of the IPDT and the BCT scales produced an adjusted coefficient of r = .518,     p < .001.

            A canonical analysis was employed to identify the primary variables that related the two sets of variables represented by the IPDT and the BCT scales. One significant canonical root was extracted (Rc = .539, p < .001) that explained 29% of the variance in the DV (the BCT scales) as predicted by the IV (the IPDT).

            Using AMOS 4.0 (Arbuckle, 1999), the relationship between the IPDT, a latent variable with five indicators (classification, conservation, imagery, proportional reasoning, and relations) and the BCT, a latent variable with three indicators (reading, language, and math), was examined. The structural model yielded acceptably high goodness of fit indices of .996 and .993 for the CFI and TLI, respectively. The RMSEA achieved a value of .074 indicating an acceptable fit of the model in relation to the degrees of freedom. All measured variables loaded on their respective factors significantly, p < .01. The latent variable IPDT (Factor 1) loaded on the latent variable BCT (Factor 2) significantly (r = .51, p < .01).

Trainer:          Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

            The recently released fifth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) includes numerous changes that will affect the ways in which researchers in the social sciences report results of their research. It is anticipated that journals requiring APA style will begin adopting the fifth edition guidelines over the next one to two years.  Hence, it is important that researchers in the social sciences become acquainted with the new guidelines and begin incorporating these into their work.  This paper summarized a variety of these changes and included a list of implications for researchers who desire to submit their work to journals requiring APA style.

            Chief among the changes in the fifth edition are new guidelines governing the reporting of statistical results.  Whereas the fourth edition of the Manual had included some suggestions for improving statistical reporting, the fifth edition includes strengthened language regarding the efficacy of reporting indices of effect size and strength of relationship in addition to the reporting of results of tests of statistical significance.  Similarly, the Manual now includes language strongly recommending the reporting of confidence intervals as a means for assessing the precision of statistical results. 

            The new edition of the Manual also includes expanded guidelines related to ethical research practices and general decorum in communication with editors.  In addition, new information is provided related to dissemination of research in light of technological advances now available to researchers, including new guidelines for referencing on-line materials, formatting tables and figures, and submitting papers to electronic sources.   These and other changes in the manual were summarized.  Additionally, the paper presented several plausible scenarios in which researchers might find themselves as a means for illustrating how researchers should best conduct themselves as researchers in light of the new APA guidelines.

Session 13.4   DISPLAYS       Riverside West and 2^nd Floor Lobby

Teacher Leadership: The Development of an Ed.S. Program for Teachers Seeking NBPTS Certification

Russell F. West and Russell O. Mays, East Tennessee State University

            The certification process developed by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) has grown over the past 10 years, so that it is now widely recognized as the premier national certification for accomplished teachers.  NBPTS certification has highlighted the many leadership roles assumed by teachers in schools and has helped broaden the definition of what it means to be a "school leader.”  The certification process is quite rigorous, and many teachers who apply find themselves "on their own" as they begin to develop their NBPTS portfolios and prepare for the NBPTS assessment process.   In recent years colleges and universities have begun to develop programs that assist teachers who are seeking NBPTS certification.   While at some institutions, programs consist of informal seminars and workshops or more formal single courses, other institutions have elected to redesign graduate programs in ways that are consistent with or complementary to the NBPTS certification process. 

            The purpose of this display session was to describe the efforts to develop a new Educational Specialist (Ed.S.) Program in Teacher Leadership at East Tennessee State University.  This program began in January 2001 and includes 10 teachers who are simultaneously pursuing the Ed.S. degree and NBPTS certification.  The 31-hour program was developed by an advisory group of practicing teachers and administrators.  Much of the program was designed around the NBPTS standards, and a significant portion of the program is facilitated by NBPTS-certified teachers.   Cohort members are also paired with NBPTS-certified mentors during the portfolio development phase of the program. 

            Curriculum materials developed for this new NBPTS cohort program were provided, along with the results of interviews with cohort members in which they described the process through which they made the decision to: (1) participate in the NBPTS cohort program, and (2) apply.

Poverty in the Classroom: A University/School Partnership for Teacher Empowerment

Pamela A. Taylor, University of Southern Indiana

            Children of poverty are at heightened risk of school failure. Today, both poor children and children of color are overrepresented among the lower achievers and those who drop out before completing high school. Many factors account for the school problems of poor children in addition to impeding their progress. Such factors include:  (1) teachers' maintained lowered expectations, and (2) typically a mismatch between the cultural background of teachers and that of their charges exist, particularly when comparing the culture of poverty with the culture of teachers who are predominately white and middle-class.

            Studies have shown that teachers need inservice training in multicultural education in order to acquire the skills and understanding to teach culturally different children. The research has also shown that one-shot courses and workshops are insufficient. The objectives and focus of these study sessions were to: (1) develop an understanding of how poverty impact children in the school setting, (2) examine teachers' perspectives of children in poverty and their families, (3) identify and evaluate specific strategies that will facilitate academic achievement, and (4) garner skills in curricular design that will accommodate different learning preferences and/or needs. Ultimately, it was expected that the teachers would be empowered with study habits and skills necessary to maintain their own professional inquiry.

            This display session chronicled a university/school partnership. This collaborative partnership was intended to allow inservice teachers opportunities to interface with university faculty and preservice teachers in order to exchange ideas and maintain an articulation on the most current theories and strategies in education. This session further outlined the progression of the partnership agreement, acquisition of training and resource materials, and the development of teacher study groups for managing poverty in the classroom.

A Comparison of Preservice Teachers' Knowledge and Use of Computer Applications in Their Teacher Preparation Program

Lynda Frederick, Rebecca M. Giles, and Richard L. Daughenbaugh, University of South Alabama

            A National Center for Education Statistics survey (Rowand, 2000) reported that 99% of full-time regular public school teachers had (NCES) access to computers or the Internet somewhere in their schools. Recent studies of preservice teachers have recommended a stronger computer technology component in teacher education programs (NCATE, 1997; Northrup & Little, 1996; Willis & Melinger, 1996). This study investigated preservice teachers' knowledge of computer applications and the use of these applications while completing required course work in a teacher preparation program. Participants were undergraduate students (n=100) seeking teacher certification who were currently enrolled in a microcomputing systems course. The Computer Applications Survey, developed by researchers to collect demographic data and information regarding computer applications, was used to collect data. Respondents rated each of the computer applications three times:  (1) if the application was familiar (yes/no), (2) how frequently the application was used (often/seldom/never), and (3) if the application is beneficial to individuals seeking teacher certification. Completion of the scale was completely voluntary and anonymous.

            Frequency analysis was conducted on each of the separate applications to ascertain the percentage of responses for each of the three groups: (1) familiarity, (2) use, and (3) benefit. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance to ascertain statistical significance between the three dependent variables and the five independent variables derived from the demographics (gender, age range, overall GPA, certification being sought, and ownership of a personal computer). The .05 level of significance was used for all analyses.

            The conclusions drawn from this study provided valuable information for teacher educators regarding preservice teachers' level of knowledge and degree of use pertaining to the 12 identified computer applications. This information was beneficial to teacher educators in planning for the incorporation of technology in their teacher preparation programs.

Trends in Preservice Teachers' Educational Beliefs

Lynn C. Minor, Valdosta State University; Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University; and Ann E. Witcher, University of Central Arkansas

            This study examined trends in preservice teachers' educational beliefs over time. Participants were 84 preservice teachers enrolled in several introductory-level education classes for education majors at a southeastern university. These students were administered the Witcher-Travers Survey of Educational Beliefs (WTSEB) both on the first day of class and at the end of the one-semester course. The WTSEB contains two parts. Whereas the first part elicits demographic information (e.g., gender) from the respondents, the second section contains a 40-item Likert-type scale, with five possible responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Low scores indicate greater proclivity toward transmissivism, high scores suggest a tendency toward progressivism, and mid-range scores indicate an eclectic philosophy.

            Participants also were administered the Preservice Teachers' Perceptions of Characteristics of Effective Teachers Survey (PTPCETS). The PTPCETS asks participants to identify, rank, and define between three and six characteristics that they believe effective teachers possess or demonstrate. The PTPCETS was administered as a pretest only.

            A paired-samples t-test revealed a statistically significant increase in WTSEB scores. The effect size associated with this increase was .29, suggesting a moderate increase. Specifically, by the end of the course, students, on average, demonstrated a more progressive orientation. A phenomenological analysis of the PTPCETS responses revealed the following seven themes emerging from the characteristics that the preservice teachers considered to reflect effective teaching:  (1) student-centered, (2) effective classroom and behavior manager, (3) competent instructor, (4) ethical, (5) enthusiastic about teaching, (6) knowledgeable about subject, and (7) personable. A multiple regression analysis, using the posttest-pretest difference educational belief scores as the dependent variable, revealed that the ethical theme was a significant predictor of preservice teachers' educational beliefs. Specifically, preservice teachers who believed that ethics was a foremost characteristic for teachers to possess tended to experience the greatest shift toward progressivism. Implications were discussed.

Self-Created Mnemonics or Teacher-Selected Mnemonics...Which are More Effective?

Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University/Lincoln Parish (Louisiana) Schools

            Memory is the process of actively storing and receiving information. In a curriculum that highlights critical thinking skills, the importance of memorization could be forgotten. The knowledge base must be developed through memorization, and mnemonic instruction is one way to build this foundation of knowledge. The purpose of this action research study was to see if self-created mnemonics would help students at-risk and with learning disabilities retain more multiplication facts than those students who were given predetermined mnemonics by the researcher.

            The participants were 32 third-grade students in a Louisiana Title I public school. A baseline pretest procedure was used to determine eight multiplication facts that were missed by the majority of the students. Students were then randomly drawn to participate in either Condition A (self-created mnemonics) or Condition B (pre-assigned mnemonics).

            The preliminary stages of the intervention involved the Condition A students creating their own rhyming words (pegwords) for the factors and products of the facts to be used during the study. The Condition B students participated in an unrelated math activity. Then, each group was given a set of cards with which to practice. Condition A student cards had the self-selected pegwords, while Condition B student cards had pegwords pre-selected by the researcher. Both groups practiced these cards for three days. In the next stage, the researcher created line drawings and sentences using the pegwords chosen by the Condition A students for the multiplication facts selected for the study. The Condition B students used sentences and drawings that were used by another researcher and were considered as pre-assigned. Students were given one week of practice sessions. Each group reviewed the flashcards five times per session. Statistical analysis revealed that, while both groups showed fewer errors on the posttest, no significant differences existed between the two conditions.

Investigating the Success for All Reading Program

Jack G. Blendinger, Mississippi State University, and Lauren Rabb Wells, University of West Alabama

            Touted as a marketed solution for children’s low reading performance, Success for All (SFA) is the only comprehensively packaged reading program on the market. Although its developers originally designed the program to benefit students who rank in the lowest 25% in reading achievement, it is presently being adopted and used in elementary schools throughout the south as the reading curriculum for all students in kindergarten through grade six.

            This poster session presented a mixed-methods (qualitative and quantitative) research design to investigate the SFA program in action. The design was suitable for both experienced and novice researchers.

            Field observation, emphasizing continuous-recording techniques, is carried out to determine if the SFA reading program is being implemented as advocated by its developers. Students' reading scores on standardized tests were collected at scheduled intervals and compared to scores made prior to the implementation of the program. Questionnaires were used to determine the attitudes of teachers, students, and parents toward the SFA reading program in particular and reading in general. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to identify what key informants say about the program. The interviewing process required asking a series of structured (closed-form) questions and then exploring the responses more extensively using open-form questions to obtain additional information. Involvement practices in school settings were positive. The research design in the form of a flowchart, and samples of instruments were given to participants visiting the display.

Levels of Reading Comprehension and Reading Vocabulary Among Graduate Students

Kathleen M.T. Collins, Saint Mary's University of Minnesota, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Lack of reading skills is one of the greatest problems in postsecondary education. Unfortunately, unlike the case for primary and secondary schools, reading problems typically are not identified by either students or their teachers until students are far into their programs of study. This failure to diagnose reading difficulties early stems from the fact that reading is not routinely assessed at college; yet, ironically, outcomes from reading are evaluated continually throughout students’ college lives.

            Several researchers have found that reading ability predicts educational outcomes among undergraduate students. However, scant attention has been paid to the reading ability of graduate students. This inattention probably stems from the fact that many educators assume that this group of students, who represent the upper echelon of academic achievers, have adequate reading skills. Yet, recent research documented that graduate students are nearly 3.5 times more likely to report that they nearly always or always procrastinate on keeping up with weekly reading than are undergraduate students. Thus, it is clear that the reading skills of graduate students should not be taken for granted.

            Consequently, the purpose of the present investigation was to examine graduate students’ reading comprehension and reading vocabulary by comparing scores of graduate students on a standardized test of reading to scores obtained by a large normative sample of undergraduates. Participants were 59 graduate students enrolled in an educational research course at a southeastern university. They were administered the Nelson-Denny Reading Test (NDRT). Findings revealed that the graduate students had higher scores on the reading comprehension portion of the NDRT than did a normative sample of 5000 undergraduate students from 38 institutions (Cohen’s d =.71). Similarly, the graduate students had higher scores on the reading vocabulary portion of the NDRT than did the normative sample (d = .45). Implications were discussed.

            The defining characteristic of a specific learning disability (SLD) has been a significant discrepancy between a student’s intelligence and achievement. A student classified with a specific learning disability typically presents with average to above average intelligence and below average achievement.

            Both the simple difference and regression formulas have been used to determine the presence of a significant discrepancy. However, in recent years, many states have begun to employ the latter formula based on the belief that it is more valid.

            The purpose of this study was to examine the classification agreement between the two formulas. Archival data were obtained from the special education folders of 94 students receiving SLD services from a school district in northeast Arkansas. The regression formula had previously been used with these students’ to assist in determining eligibility.

            Data analysis consisted of subjecting each student’s test scores to the simple difference formula. Next, data were subjected to non-parametric statistical analysis, including kappa.

            The results revealed little agreement between the regression and simple difference formulas in the determination of a severe discrepancy. The kappa coefficient was low (kappa = .18).  Furthermore, the results showed that 27% of the students (n = 25) were identified as presenting with a severe discrepancy by the regression but not by the simple difference formula.

            Although these findings were limited by a restricted sample and the use of two tests, they suggested that the adoption of a particular formula may significantly impact who was identified as presenting with a severe discrepancy.  More specifically, the use of the regression formula may have actually contributed to an increase in the incidence of SLD. These findings supported the developing body of evidence that suggested a need for alternative methods of assessment.

Jewels Of Wisdom: A Study of Perceptions of Discipline of Middle School Practicing Teachers, Middle School Preservice Teachers, High School Practicing Teachers, and High School Preservice Teachers

Barbara N. Young and Barbara Milligan, Middle Tennessee State University

            School discipline is viewed as a national concern that is becoming more serious by the day. Practicing teachers and preservice teacher education students are concerned with discipline-related problems in schools across the nation. Perceptions of discipline influence practicing teachers and preservice teachers in many different ways as they make decisions regarding career choices.

            Because teaching depends on habits and behaviors resulting from deeply held ways of seeing, perceiving, and valuing, perceptions are very important. This study used the basis of “perceptions” to examine response data on perceptions of discipline from two main groups (“School”) labeled Middle School Perceptions and High School Perceptions. These two main groups were then divided into two subgroups (“Status”) labeled Preservice Teachers and Practicing Teachers, with overall combination groups being Middle School Preservice Teachers and Middle School Practicing Teachers, and High School Preservice Teachers and High School Practicing Teachers.

            The interview questions and survey questions asked both specific and general questions regarding the perceptions of discipline held by preservice teachers and practicing teachers at the middle school and high school levels. The objectives of the survey were to ascertain the various perceptions with regard to “School” and “Status,” and then to determine if these perceptions of discipline changed significantly according to “School” or  “Status.”

            Analysis of respondents’ perceptions was shared and incorporated within preservice classes, and knowledge of the differing perceptions of the school violence issue may provide the student teacher with a valuable perspective as he/she enters the field of education.

School Safety-Observations and Perceptions by Gender: A Pilot Study

Johan W. van der Jagt, University of West Alabama; Chhanda Ghose, Southern University - Baton Rouge; and Marion Madison, University of West Alabama

            The purpose of this study was twofold. First, it investigated preservice and inservice teachers' observed and experienced violence at various educational levels. Second, the study determined by gender these individuals' knowledge and awareness of violence factors (e.g., types, causes, effects, and safety programs).

            The subjects in this sample consisted of 26 university preservice and four inservice teachers in two sections of an introductory special education class at a small southeastern university. The preservice teachers consisted of elementary, secondary, and K-12 special education majors (eight males and 18 females, 58% Caucasian and 42% African American). The inservice teachers, including paraprofessionals, consisted of two males and two females (50% Caucasian and 50% African American). Subjects' ages ranged from less than 25 years to over 55 years.

            A survey questionnaire was developed, validated, and administered. Participants indicated their school safety-violence observations and experiences from grade school through college/university and their agreement or disagreement to a minimum of 10 statements listed under five safety-violence factors.

            The data were analyzed using SPSS/PC+ 7.5 descriptive and inferential statistical procedures. The independent variable was gender. The dependent variables included violence observed and experienced and perceptions about school safety-violence factors (e.g., awareness).

            The results indicated that subjects had differences in violence experienced in schools. The results also suggested that subjects had similar gender perceptions of school violence, but differences occurred in their perceptions of acts of school violence. Limitations and implications for future research and school-safety violence prevention programs were presented at the session.

1:30 p.m. - 2:20 p.m.

Chair: Pamela A. Taylor, University of Southern Indiana

An Evaluation of an On-line Graduate-Level Seminar Course

James E. McLean, East Tennessee State University

            All master of education students at a regional university are required to complete a one-credit-hour interdisciplinary seminar course that addresses current issues in education.  Traditionally, the course has met on a regular schedule and the emphasis has been on a discussion format.  The purpose of this paper was to describe the evaluation of moving this course to the Internet.

            The evaluation method was qualitative, involving a description of the course before and after going on-line and the perceptions of the students in two separate on-line classes.  The logistics involved in the change were also described.  The on-line course was taught using BlackBoard, "a complete suite of enterprise software products and services that power a total ‘e-Education Infrastructure' for schools, colleges, universities" (see http://company.blackboard.com). The discussions were held using the asynchronous discussion forum option in BlackBoard.  Students were required to make at least one original contribution to each discussion topic and to comment on at least two other students' postings.  They were required to provide an APA-style reference to support their original contributions and for the first two comments on others' contributions.

The major advantages cited following the transition were the ability to have more thoughtful comments, greater participation not limited by a large class-size, and the broad array of Internet resources that were available through the website.  The major disadvantage was the technical knowledge requirement for those not previously exposed.  An important lesson learned in the transition was that providing a hands-on orientation to the class in a computer laboratory takes much of the anxiety out of the approach.  In the end, students felt that the experience would be helpful to them with their own students in that they learned about on-line education through experience.

Student Perceptions of Learning in a Web‑Based Tutorial

Sean R. McAuley and William Brescia, University of Arkansas

            This study examined the usefulness of a web-based HTML tutorial for Educational Technology graduate students and the perceptions of the students who took part in those lessons.  The students were master’s degree students enrolled in Introduction to Web Design at the University of Arkansas.  The participants had not been exposed to HTML training.  Ten students from the course participated in the study. 

            Students completed one lesson a week for six weeks.  Each lesson consisted of instruction in basic HTML design with each lesson building upon the previous material.  After completing each lesson, students:  (1) completed a web-based quiz, (2) designed their own web page with material from each lesson, (3) submitted the HTML code via e-mail to the instructor for evaluation, and (4) completed a qualitative questionnaire that examined their perceptions of the lesson.  After completing the entire tutorial, each student was interviewed using structured and unstructured questions.

            Using qualitative methods, the researchers analyzed the results from each quiz to determine the rate of retention after each lesson.  Student-created web pages were used to measure the students’ broader understanding of the material as they progressed through the tutorial.  The questionnaires, which were completed immediately after each lesson, revealed the students’ perceived amount of learning.  The final interviews attempted to discover the students’ perceptions of specific design elements.

            Preliminary results indicated the effectiveness of course design and the strengths and weaknesses of the tutorial as perceived by the students.  The students’ perceptions of the tutorial provided a foundation for developing valuable strategies for web-based learning.  The results were especially relevant to web-based instruction, distance learning, and effective course design.

An Analysis of Philosophy Of Education Position Papers of On-Line and On-Ground Graduate Philosophy of Education Classes

Wade C. Smith, Tennessee State University

            The purpose of this research was to compare the position papers of two graduate philosophy of education courses.  One course was on-ground and was taught in the traditional class setting.  The other course was on-line and was completely on-line.  All communication and learning events occurred on the web.  Both sets of students had access to the professor via email and telephone.  The students were stratified by their election to their class type, on-ground or on-line.  Twenty-six students were in the on-ground class, and 30 students were in the on-line class. 

            The data collected for this study were the students' end of term philosophy of education position papers.  Two independent graders assessed the students' position papers.  Each grader graded all of the papers.  The resulting two grades were averaged for a student paper grade.

            An ANOVA was conducted to ascertain what effect class type had on the following variables:  (1) paper grade, (2) gender, (3) ethnicity, and (4) e-mail contacts.  No significant relationships existed between class type and student paper grades, student gender, and student ethnicity.  The number of e-mails was significantly different by class type.  Gender, ethnicity, and e-mails were not significantly related to student paper grades, but the p value of the e-mail to paper grade was found to be .054

Chair: Marsha L. Thicksten, California State University, Long Beach

The Overrepresentation of Minority Students in Learning Disabled Classes

Stephen J. Obringer, Mississippi State University

            It has long been established that a disproportionate number of minority students meet the eligibility criteria and are placed in learning disabled programs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of racial balance using two modifications to the existing protocols in the determination of eligibility of school-age students who qualified for learning disabled classes in the Mississippi Public Schools.  The state of Mississippi currently uses extremely liberal criteria in determining eligibility of learning disabled students. 

            Currently, a 15-point discrepancy between the standard score on a standardized achievement test (typically reading or math) compared with either the Verbal IQ index, performance IQ index, or full-scale IQ index will qualify a student for LD services.  The modifications for this study included the following:  (1) using the same 15-point discrepancy between achievement, but using Full Scale IQ ONLY, and (2) increasing the discrepancy level from 15 points (one standard deviation) to 22 points (approximately 1 1/2 standard deviations).  The population consisted of 123 students in a school district of 4,000 students.  Seventy of the students were African American, and 53 were Caucasian.  The modification that produced the best racial balance was the use of the Full Scale IQ Index only. The chi-square statistic was utilized. 

Where Does the Power Lie: Multicultural Education in the Eleventh‑Grade English Classroom

Daniel F. Pigg, The University of Tennessee at Martin

            Finding a way to understand ourselves and our cultural literary heritage in America has been a complex issue for the high school English classroom.  Curricular forces both inside and outside the classroom have demanded that teachers and students examine the meaning of the American literary experience from a new perspective.  Much of the scholarly work and pedagogical practice to date on the use of multicultural literature in the eleventh-grade English classroom (the grade level at which American literature is examined) has been reflective of multiculturalism, an adding of women and minority writers to the “established” canon. 

            This paper examined the history of influences that have impacted curricular decisions, and then considered the role that power has had in creating the environment for curricular transformation.  With a more equitable equation of power relationships in the classroom, teachers and students can explore texts, themselves, others, and their communities.  Because multicultural education in the eleventh-grade English classroom relies on established texts as the basis for curriculum, the paper examined the available texts in terms that highlight both the surface and deep level commitments to inclusiveness.  Finally, a model combining curriculum conversation, performance, and role playing was presented, and an illustration of how these can impact the teaching of early American literature (the initial contact zone with multiple cultural perspectives) was provided.  The eleventh-grade English classroom, a contested space where race, ethnicity, economics, gender, and social class come to the center, is a site worthy of re-examination for multicultural transformation.  Decentering power and traditional texts along with a new understanding of power relationships in the classroom allowed for the exploration of cultures and identities that will better prepare students, teachers, and the wider community for engagement in a culturally diverse America.

An Investigation of the Cultural Aspects of Single‑Sex Schools

Darlene G. Harris, Tennessee State University

            This paper investigated what research says about the culture of single-sex schools:  their missions, enrollment trends and selection processes, and the perceived impact of Title IX.  Excerpts from personal interviews conducted with single-sex school administrators, a parent of students attending a single-sex school, and a student enrolled in a single-sex school were included.  A discussion of their perceptions and thoughts about the advantages of attending all-girls and all boys’ schools was highlighted, as well as comments regarding strategies employed by their schools to implement multicultural education or to enhance cultural diversity.

Chair: Hae-Seong Park, University of New Orleans

Using Resampling Methods to Improve the Results of Meta‑Analysis

Robert Grisham Stewart, East Tennessee State University

            Since undergoing refinement in the early 80's, meta‑analytic methods have been used extensively in the social sciences and human services.  Indeed, as of June 30, 2001, the ERIC (Educational Research Information Center) database contained 1516 documents matching the keyword meta‑analysis.  Congruently, resampling methods have matured and are supported by an in‑depth theoretical and applied literature base.  Indeed, in one form or another (e.g., bootstrapping, permuting, and combining), resampling has been shown to improve the results of many analytic techniques.  Without exception are the methods of meta‑analysis.

            Herein, the objective was to assist researchers with applying resampling methods to the results of meta-analysis.  Accordingly, the discussion proceeded along three lines.  First, an introduction to each method was provided followed by a review of theory and practice specific to resampling meta-analytic data.  Second, conceptual and computational examples were presented along with a review of computer packages and programs.  (Note that a template for designing SAS programs is appended.)  Finally, to further explore the potential of resampling in meta-analysis, a research agenda was proposed.

            Today, educational researchers must engage decades of primary research that is often interdisciplinary and from fields that continue to subspecialize.  Consequently, meta‑analytic studies are essential for cumulating findings and revealing new research opportunities. Resampling methods can improve these efforts.

A New Proposed Binomial Test of Result Direction

Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            When multiple tests of statistical significance are conducted, adjustments for inflated Type I error rates should be made to ensure that the actual error does not exceed its nominal value. Unfortunately, when multiple tests are undertaken with an adjusted alpha, the statistical power of any particular test is lowered. For example, if a researcher wants to compare 64 males and 64 females on one variable, with an overall alpha of .05, the alpha value is .05, if two gender comparisons are made, using the Bonferroni adjustment, the adjusted alpha is .025; if five comparisons prevail, the adjusted alpha value is .01. The statistical power for detecting a moderate effect is thus lower for five comparisons (.59) than for two comparisons (.71) and one comparison (.80). Here, the statistical power for making more than one comparison is inadequate. Disturbingly, the typical level of power used to detect moderate relationships in studies is .5. Indeed, many researchers are unable to discover true relationships that prevail in the population because of inadequate statistical power.

            Thus, this paper demonstrated how a proposed new binomial test of result direction can supplement multiple tests of significance, especially when statistical power is low. This test used the binomial distribution to determine whether the number of results falling in a certain direction represented chance by assuming that the probability of any particular result direction is .5, under the null hypothesis. For example, if five statistically non-significant gender differences emerged with respect to dimensions of anxiety, but females attained higher scores on all five measures, then the binomial test would have revealed that "although no statistically significant gender differences emerged, females were statistically significantly (exact p = .031) consistent in reporting higher levels of anxiety than were males." Thus, the binomial test provided more information than when using a conventional null hypothesis significance test alone.

Characteristics of Respondents with Different Response Patterns to Positively-Worded and Negatively-Worded Items on Rating Scales

Gail H. Weems, The University of Memphis, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Several researchers have examined the effect of having positively- and negatively-worded items within the same scale. Most recently, it has been found that the mean item response to the positively-worded items can be statistically significantly different than the corresponding mean item response to the negatively-worded items within the same scale. Furthermore, the reliability coefficient pertaining to the positively-worded items can be significantly lower than that estimated for the negatively-worded items.  These two findings indicate that using mixed stems (i.e., positively- and negatively-worded items) may reduce score reliability. These results also suggest that positively-worded items and negatively-worded items within a scale may not be measuring the same underlying trait. For example, strongly agreeing to a negatively-worded item may not induce an identical response (as it should) if the same item had been positively worded (in this latter case, a “strongly disagree” response would be the equivalent response).

            Although evidence prevails that including positively- and negatively-worded items within the same scale can lead to differential response patterns, little is known about factors that predict how different these responses will be. Thus, this study investigated characteristics of respondents whose responses between positively- and negatively-worded items are most different.

            Several datasets were analyzed, yielding many findings. For example, a sample of 78 students revealed that those with the greatest differential in responses between positively- and negatively-worded items on a 45-item, five-point Likert-format measure of research anxiety tended to have negative self-perceptions about their academic competence, did not have tendencies towards cooperative learning, had the highest levels of hope associated with pathways, and were not self-oriented
perfectionists. Implications of these and other findings were discussed.

Session 14.4   GENDER ISSUES:  CURRENT RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS         (Symposium, 2 hours)  Palisades

Organizers:     Linda W. Morse, Mississippi State University, and William A. Spencer, Auburn University

            This symposium presented five papers on various topics in gender issues and gender equity.  Following the presentations, two discussants offered commentary.  Audience participation was invited.

Rebecca R. Robichaux, Southeastern Louisiana University

            Based on a preliminary review of the literature, it appeared that the research that has been conducted with respect to gender differences in preservice teachers falls into three categories:  (1) studies that look at preservice teachers prior to the student teaching experience, (2) studies of preservice teachers throughout their undergraduate programs (including student teaching), and (3) studies focusing on undergraduates during their student teaching experience only (gender being a variable in each of these three categories).  The majority of this research lies in the second category.  More research is needed with respect to gender differences in success rates of student teachers and with the type of institution attended.

Do We Know What "Equal Means"?  A Review of the Research on Advanced Mathematics and the Mediating Role of Advanced Mathematical Reform in Gender Differences

Karen R. De Amicis, The University of Memphis

            This literature examined advanced mathematics and gender research, specifically through instructional methodology, student learning and assessment, and mathematical beliefs and attitudes.  Patterns in the research were explored on advanced mathematics and the mediating role of advanced mathematics in gender differences so that educators could enhance mathematical understanding and performance for all students and, specifically, for women.  A multiple perspective was proposed for viewing and integrating "equalizers,"  elements of research that have been shown, either implicitly or explicitly, to balance gender differences in advanced mathematical performance.  

Kathy Hulley, Lincoln Memorial University

            Teacher-student interactions regarding gender bias attitudes were examined in this paper.  Research in this area is not current, although studies in gender equity were added to curricula in undergraduate and graduate education programs by some school or colleges of education.  Several areas of gender equity to address included:  (1) non-verbal gender bias measurements, (2) gender-biased student behavior, (3) measurement surveys to determine gender bias, and (4) whether gender equity curricula contributes to improvement in gender bias.  At this time, a measurement survey needs to be developed and administered to teachers to measure gender bias in attitudes in the above areas.

Gender Differences and Testing:  Are There Differences in Strategic Behaviors?

Linda W. Morse and David T. Morse, Mississippi State University

            Although many studies have addressed the differences in cognitive abilities between the genders on ability and achievement tests, relatively few have examined what strategic differences might exist in various aspects of test-taking behavior.  Variables such as guessing strategies, test-wiseness, and other test-taking strategies are usually not examined in the context of gender differences, yet offer an important insight into explaining some of the differences in test performance.   This paper examined the research in test-taking behavior and test-taking strategies that show differences by gender and the implications of these findings.      

Competency and Self Esteem:  Do Developmental Texts Perpetuate or Challenge Gender Stereotypes?

Beth Hensley, The University of Memphis

            Undergraduates in pre-professional education programs typically complete a human development course.  One important related question is whether or not human development texts challenge students to develop nonsexist knowledge and perspectives needed as they interact with children and adults.  This study highlighted the importance for educators in evaluating, selecting, or developing materials that address the needs and concerns of children related to physical competence and self esteem.

William A. Spencer, Auburn University, and Gypsy C. Abbott, The University of Alabama at Birmingham

            The final presenters in this symposium offered commentary on these papers and on the current status of research in gender differences in educational settings.

Session 14.5   PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT      Riverside East                      

Chair: Gary M. Stiler, University of Southern Indiana

Identification of Teacher Leaders Through the National Board Certification Process in Mississippi Public Schools

Edna M. Waller and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

            This paper presented the results of a recently conducted research study that was designed to examine the differences between the leadership behaviors of Mississippi teachers who have completed the National Board Certification process and those who have not, as measured by the Leadership Practices Inventory relative to the dimensions of Challenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision, Enabling Others to Act, Modeling the Way, and Encouraging the Heart.  Analysis of the collected data from the study were presented, as well as the derived findings, conclusions, implications for field practice, and finally possible areas for future research regarding the impact of National Board Certification.

An Investigation of the Relationship Between Teacher Personality and National Board Certification Among South Mississippi Teachers

Senita A. Walker and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

            This research paper reported on a study that examined the relationship between teacher personality and National Board Certification using 201 south Mississippi teachers in three groups:  (1) a group of National Board Certified Teachers, (2) a group of teachers seeking National Board Certification, and (3) a random group of teachers who have not chosen to seek National Board Certification.  Both the National Board Certified Teachers and the teachers seeking National Board Certification took part in the Gulf Coast Master Teacher Mentoring Project.  The three groups completed the fifth edition of Cattell's 16PF Questionnaire.  Analysis of the collected data from the three groups on the five Global Personality Factors of Cattell's 16PF Questionnaire were reported, as well as a series of recommendations for future research in this area.

National Board Certified Teacher: A Case Study

David Hough and D. Randall Parker, Louisiana Tech University

            This paper presented a qualitative case study of an individual who has recently successfully completed the National Board Certification process.  The specific purpose of this study was to find out what parts of the process were frustrating or difficult for that individual.  Furthermore, this successful teacher's comments concerning her areas of satisfaction with the process and her advice for future prospective candidates were collected and analyzed.

            Data collection methods consisted of taped interviews, review of the subjects’ portfolio, and observations of her teaching in class.  From these data, the following six categories emerged: (1) frustrations or difficulties with the process, (2) positive things about the process, (3) certification process descriptions, (4) insights and advice of the participant, (5) teacher improvement and impact on the students or community, and (6) personal information.  The major themes that emerged from this study were:  (1) the process is both challenging and time consuming, (2) self-motivation is a key to success, and (3) support from other teachers and others in the program is essential.

            According to the participant, the best part of the certification process was the interpretive summary at the end of each of the six portfolio entries.  The teacher said that was the part that taught her the most.  In her words, "It said, now that you've taught that, what did you learn about this?  What would you do differently?  How did you know that the students were learning?"  It involved a lot of reflection about her teaching methods. 

Time for reflection in the teaching process is important.  Without reflection, there is no analysis of the effectiveness of the teaching process, no contemplation, no evidence of value or competency of the teaching methods.  If teachers are to improve, they must go through this reflective process.  The NBPTS certification can be an avenue to develop such reflection. 

2:30 a.m. - 3:20 p.m.

Chair: Naomi C. Coyle, Centenary College of Louisiana

A Comparison of the Efficacy Levels of Preservice and Inservice Teachers

Marian J. Parker, University of North Alabama, and Anthony J. Guarino, Auburn University

            The study compared responses of preservice and inservice teachers to statements describing their levels of teacher efficacy.  The 92 preservice teachers included in the study were divided into two groups:  (1) 51 who had completed their methods course but had not begun the student internship and (2) 41 who completed the internship just prior to the administration of the instrument. The 43 inservice teachers reported an average of 5.4 years of teaching experience. All of the teachers were employed in public schools in northwestern Alabama.

            In the college classroom environment, subjects responded to 10 statements describing the extent to which they believed they could effect student engagement and learning. The instrument provided a five-point Likert scale allowing respondents to select varying degrees of agreement with the statements, from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

            A one-way analysis of variance yielded significant differences between the preservice and inservice teachers on two of the 10 items. Significant differences between inservice teachers and methods students appeared on two additional items.  The findings of the study suggested implications for preservice education, as well as professional development for inservice teachers.

A Comparison Between What Senior Level Education Majors Know About Students with ADD/ADHD and What Experienced Teachers Want to Know About Students with ADD/ADHD

Sidney Rowland, Joan C. Harlan, and Grady E. Harlan, The University of Mississippi, and Mitylene Arnold, Texas A&M University-Kingsville

            Teacher educators and others deliberate about what constitutes appropriate curriculum and field experiences so that K-12 teachers effectively instruct and manage students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).  Towards this end, this study compared what experienced teachers want to know about ADHD students with what student teachers know about ADHD students.

            During the fall 2000 semester, 131 practicing experienced, regular education teachers across grades K-12 in a county school district in northeastern Mississippi voluntarily and anonymously indicated what they wanted to know about students with ADHD.  All teachers had five or more years of teaching experience, and 80% received their undergraduate training and M.Ed. degrees in Elementary Education or Secondary Education at The University of Mississippi (UM).

            Overwhelmingly, the teachers indicated that they wanted to know more about:  (1) behavior management strategies, (2) characteristics/causes, (3) treatment/interventions, (4) assessment/evaluation, (5) associated social problems, (6) counseling parents, and (7) referral and resources.  The near unanimity of these results, and the researchers’ interpretations of them as an indication that large numbers of the sample felt exceptionally deficit in their abilities to effectively interact with students with ADHD, propelled the researchers to conduct a survey with preservice teachers currently enrolled in the undergraduate Curriculum and Instruction program at The University of Mississippi.

            During the spring 2001 semester, 104 senior-level student teachers voluntarily and anonymously completed a researcher-devised and previously field-tested 20-item questionnaire.  The instrument assessed the respondents’ knowledge about the traits, behaviors, causes, and effects of medication on students with ADHD.  Analysis of the results indicated that many students had numerous misconceptions, especially about the causes and the effects of medication.

            Following the quantitative analyses, the researchers performed a qualitative analysis that produced many implications and teacher education curricular recommendations that appeared in the final paper.

Preservice Teachers' Schemas and Their Relations to Goal Orientations in Particular Learning Situations

Indranie Dharmadasa and Kiri H. Dharmadasa, Chicago State University

            The purpose of this study was to identify preservice teachers' schemas related to three learning situations and to examine how these schemas differed according to their goal orientations.

            Schemas are cognitive or mental structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize the environment (Piaget, 1972), are complex networks of connected information (Hebert & Raphael, 1996; Voss & Wiley, 1995), and are individually constructed dynamic and contextual (Wigfield, Eclles & Pintrich, 1996).

            Goal orientations are behavioral intentions that determine how students approach and engage in learning activities (Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988). In the domain of intellectual achievement, Dweck and Leggett (1988) identified two categories of goals: learning and performance. Less research literature is evident where the interactive effects of preservice teachers' schemas in particular learning situations are discussed relating to their goal orientations.

            The sample consisted of 58 preservice teachers from an early childhood program in a midwestern university. Two instruments, The School Task Inventory (Dharmadasa & Gorrell, 1996) and the Goals Inventory (Roedel, Schraw & Plake, 1994), were used to gather information related to preservice teachers' schemas and goal orientations.

            Analysis of variance, descriptive statistics, and qualitative research procedures were employed to analyze data. "Z" scores of the goal orientation data indicated, out of the total sample, 10% were high in both learning and performance goal orientations, 23% were high in learning and low in performance goal orientations, 17% were high in performance goal orientations and low in learning goal orientations, and 50% were low in both learning and performance goal orientations. Five categories of schemas were identified related to each learning situation.

            Statistically significant within group and between group differences and qualitative differences were found. These findings suggested important implications for teachers and teacher educators.

Chair: Vicki A. Wilson, Wilmington College

Multicultural Education: Unlearning Prejudice

Cindy Connelley, Tennessee State University

            This position paper examined multicultural education and how the curriculum has developed to be more inclusive.  America has promoted its schools as the pathway to equality, but upon examining the differences between democratic ideals and traditional schooling practices, discrepancies exist. Western civilization supported two cultures until industrialization, according to educator G.H.Bantock:  a high culture confined to the upper class and based upon the ability to read and write, and a folk culture based largely on traditions of oral communication.

            Thus, the traditional educational norm has been European-American, upper middle class, English speaking, and male. Rigid ethnic, racial, and gender roles have frequently been promoted by the curriculum, as traditional schooling favors competition over learning, males over females, and whites over students of color. (Gates, 1995, p3). American society is fragmented by ethnicity, class, and gender. Society is replicated in the classroom, but not by inclusive schooling practices.

            Education has changed from being a privilege only for the elite to a guaranteed right for every American child. The curriculum that addresses this change includes multicultural education. This curriculum change involves diversity, methodology, and more inclusive resources, which aids in unlearning prejudice and more democratic ideals. Multicultural education can be rooted in students’ lives and thus change the way they view their world. Therefore, the premise has existed that multicultural education unlearns prejudice.

Successful Teacher Preparation Multicultural Classrooms

Cynthia Harper, Lynetta Owens and Sheila Anne Webb, Jacksonville State University

            Teacher education can and should take the lead to ensure a high level of preparation for its graduates.  By incorporating diversity issues and means for accommodating these differences in the curriculum, teacher education can provide preservice and inservice teachers with a broad range of theory and practice to prepare them for 21st century classrooms. Multicultural education is a movement designed to empower all students to become knowledgeable, caring, and active citizens in a troubled and ethnically polarized world.     

            In 1999 the Dean of the College of Education and Professional Studies at a southeastern university created a committee across academic boundaries to review diversity issues related to students and course content.  The committee actively pursued diversity issues by surveying 60 faculty to determine the level of faculty involvement and student exposure in such issues. Specific questions concerning how multicultural education is infused into the curriculum were addressed.  Faculty were polled to determine how each program met standards concerning diversity and multicultural education.  They were asked to provide actual activities and strategies used to enhance these issues in specific courses for which they are responsible.  All programs include multicultural specific content, including practicum and clinical experiential courses. 

            In addition, 200 preservice teachers who were enrolled in the student internships were surveyed to determine the extent of exposure, degree of understanding, and the ability to accommodate students from varying backgrounds enrolled in their classrooms once they are employed.  The questionnaire addressed program coursework and clinical experiences.  This proposal provided a summary of survey results, specifically identifying ways faculty included issues of diversity and culture in teacher preparation.   Preservice teacher information received from the student survey was used for programmatic change to include additional emphasis on multicultural issues offerings.  The impact on teacher education should assist preservice teachers as they develop instructional strategies to promote academic excellence while they accommodate all learners.  

Student Reflections on a Multicultural Teaching Dyad

Pamela A. Taylor and Gary M. Stiler, University of Southern Indiana

            The intent of this study was to investigate the effects of a collaborative teaching effort in a teacher preparation program. Typically, a single instructor teaches postsecondary courses. Austin and Baldwin (1992) reported that as a result of positive modeling in the private sector, teaming among university faculty is on the increase. Reasons for this change include an increase in productivity, motivation, creative stimulation, and risk taking.  Mindful of this background, this investigation examined the following questions.  (1) Is student learning facilitated or impaired by collaborative teaching? and (2) Does collaborative teaching affect student perception of key issues in the course curriculum?

            The investigators (a multicultural dyad) co-taught a course entitled  “Cultural Diversity and Human Relations for Teaching and Learning.”  Each student participant (N=44) maintained a course response journal. Participants recorded their observations, reactions, translations, and reflections to the learning environment and experiences in this course.  Content analysis focused on student observations about the co-teaching environment and their reflections about the multicultural milieu as presented in the course curriculum.

            How students reacted to and interpreted their learning environment, experiences, and instructor interactions provided important insights for teacher educators as a measure of the efficacy of collaborative teaching.  Analysis indicated that the mode of collaborative instruction used in this investigation impacted student perceptions about the multicultural content of the course. Participant awareness of course content was heightened as a result of the differences between instructors.

            Instructor differences such as race, gender, culture, and social and educational experiences can positively impact student perceptions of diversity. These were key issues related to course content. An important implication was that students are exposed to multiple frames of reference through this type of learning environment.

Chair: Reid J. Jones, Delta State University

Community College Student's Perceptions of Growth and Development: Ethnic Groups and Full-Time and Part-Time Differences

Robert A. Horn and Corinna A. Ethington, The University of Memphis

            Changing demographics of the United States are having a major impact on higher education institutions. No longer is the typical college freshman a white 18-year-old attending college on a resident full‑time basis. This study examined whether community college students of differing ethnic backgrounds and enrollment status differed in perceptions of gains in growth and development as a function of their community college experience.

            This study's data were a subset drawn from the administration of the Community College Student Experience Questionnaire. The sample consisted of four ethnic groups (Asian, African American, Hispanic, and white) of full‑time and part‑time students intending to transfer to a four‑year institution. Four gain scales were created to operationalize student's perceptions of gains in growth and development. The scales represented perceived gains in mathematics, science, and technology, communication skills, personal and social development, and perspectives of the world. These four gain scales were used as the dependent variables, with the independent variables for this study represented by the student's ethnic group and enrollment status.

            The multivariate test for the interaction of ethnic group and enrollment status was not significant; indicating that differences in perceived growth between ethnic groups did not depend on their enrollment status. However, both main effects were significant, indicating multivariate differences between ethnic groups and between full‑time and part-time students with small to moderate effect sizes.

            Results showed that full‑time students had significantly higher perceptions of gains on all four scales than did their part‑time counterparts. Evidence of successful efforts by community colleges to equalize subsequent opportunities for all students was partially supported in this study by the minority groups that perceived greater gains of growth and development. Some of the differences seen may be indicating a closing of the gap in the academic growth and development of these groups of students.

The Effects of College Students' Personal Perceptions of Teaching and Learning on Academic Self‑Efficacy and Course Evaluations

John L. Byer, University of West Alabama

            This study investigated correlations between variables that are relevant to the potential enhancement of college classroom environments. Specifically, this study investigated the effects of the predictor variables of students' perceptions of classroom involvement and students' perceptions of the extent to which higher-order thinking skills were taught on the dependent variables of academic self-efficacy and course evaluations. Ellett (1999, November) presented evidence of positive relationships between the college classroom climate variables of students' perceptions of classroom involvement, students' perceptions of the extent to which higher-order thinking skills were taught, academic self-efficacy, and course evaluations. Haslett (1976) and Mintzes (1979) found positive relationships between college students' academic self-efficacy and college students' course evaluations. Fraser (1986) found that classroom teachers have improved their students' perceptions of the classroom environment.

            During April 2001, 89 students at a southern university completed instruments that measured their:  (1) perceptions of classroom involvement, (2) perceptions of the extent to which higher-order thinking skills were taught, (3) academic self-efficacy, and (4) their course evaluations.  A multiple correlation test revealed that students' perceptions of classroom involvement and students' perceptions of the extent to which higher-order thinking skills were taught explained 30% of the variance in the dependent variable of academic self-efficacy. Another multiple correlation test revealed that students' perceptions of classroom involvement and students' perceptions of the extent to which higher-order thinking skills were taught explained 47% of the variance in the dependent variable of course evaluations. All correlations were statistically significant (p<.01) at the exact computed p-value of p=.000.

            By providing additional evidence of positive relationships between potentially malleable college classroom environment variables, this study has strengthened the knowledge base concerning the college classroom environment. By strengthening the knowledge base concerning the college classroom environment, this study has provided increased justification for experimental interventions that tested the effectiveness of approaches for improving college classroom environments.   

A Model of Influences on Students’ Self-Ratings of Change in Problem-Solving and Critical-Thinking Abilities After Four Years of College

Susan A. Appling, The University of Memphis

            The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of six factors that affect college students’ self-rating of change in problem-solving and critical-thinking abilities after four years of college.

            Critical-thinking ability has been identified as a major outcome of higher education. Researchers have suggested that the college experience in general is more important in the development of critical-thinking skills than are individual components of that experience. The literature is inconclusive regarding which particular aspects of the college experience contribute to development of these skills. Based on the available literature, the following six factors were selected for investigation:  (1) SAT scores, (2) a socioeconomic indicator, (3) sex, (4) academic self-concept, (5) academic major, and (6) activities in the last year of college.

            Data used for this study were from the 1986–1990 Cooperative Institutional Research Project (CIRP) surveys of first-time, full-time students who enrolled as freshmen in 1986. After selection of the specific variables for this study, a sample of 1056 students who provided complete information on all variables was used. Path analysis was used to test the proposed model. Data were analyzed using multiple regression procedures. Causal effects suggested by the model were estimated with ordinary least squares procedures.

            The results supported five of the hypothesized seven paths and identified four additional significant paths.  In the estimated model, activities in which the student participated during the last year of college had the greatest significant direct effect.  Academic self-concept was proposed to have only indirect effects, mediated by academic major and activities.  However, academic self-concept was found to have both significant indirect and direct effects.  The indirect effects were mediated only through activities, as academic major had no influence on ratings of self-change.  As expected, prior achievement was found to have only an indirect effect on ratings of self-change. 

Session 15.4   ADDICTION/DRUG EDUCATION            Riverside East

 Chair: Sean McAuley, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville

Survey of Sexual Addiction Indicator: A Pilot Examination of the Psychometric Properties

James R. Meadows, Tawnya J. Smith, and Katherine Dooley, Mississippi State University

            Sexual addiction research has been limited by the lack of well-constructed and psychometrically sound instruments. This may be because of the new concept of sexual addiction within the last few years. A few instruments are available in identifying sexual addiction. However, many of these instruments lack strong psychometric foundations. This study examined the psychometric properties of a 14-item screening instrument for sexual addiction, Survey of Sexual Addiction Indicator (SSAI). The 171 participants ranged in age from 18 to 53 and included females (n = 146) and males (n = 25). The development of the SSAI was described. The reliability of the instrument was .89. In addition, a factor analysis was conducted suggesting a two-factor model. Limitations to the study were discussed, as well as further research.

Trends in Tobacco and Alcohol/Drug Use by Alabama Youth (1995-1999)

Feng Sun and Clint Bruess, The University of Alabama at Birmingham

            Cigarettes are the most commonly used daily substance by youth.  Alcohol/drug abuse continues to be a significant problem for youth and families in the United States. For a number of years, the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has coordinated the gathering of information about health risk behaviors of youth. Their Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults.

            This study analyzed the past three years of the Alabama YRBS data. Results from two of these categories (tobacco use and alcohol/ drug use) were presented in this paper. In addition, trends in each of the categories nationally and within Alabama were included along with comparisons of data from Alabama to national data.

            Descriptive statistics were used to generate profiles for the past three years of data on tobacco, alcohol/drug use. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and cross tabulation were made to compare percentages of three race/ethnic, gender, and grade subgroups for tobacco and alcohol/drug use. A linear regression was used to analyze trends of Alabama youth risk behaviors.

            Findings included the profiles of three years of YRBS data, the most prevalent youth risk behaviors, significance of comparison results with the national YRBS data, the degree of youth risk behavior changes among three subgroups, and trend analyses for Alabama students.  Implications were discussed that are appropriate for kindergarten through grade 12 school health educators, university graduate teacher preparation programs, and educational leaders. Findings of this study could help state policy makers understand the current status of the health of Alabama youth.

Exploring the Co‑Occurrence of Alcohol and Gambling Addiction Among African American College Students

Amy M. Wooten and Kathy Dooley, Mississippi State University

            Addiction research spans across several domains including gambling, alcohol, drugs, sex, exercise, and, recently, the Internet. Addictions often manifest themselves in patterns of co-occurrence.  Previous research has shown that there is a clear tendency among college students to become addicted to more than one common substance or activity. Although addiction research is emerging and some investigation into the problem of addictions in college students has been conducted, researchers have tended to ignore the investigation of race and addiction. The knowledge of racial/ethnic distribution of alcohol and gambling is poor.

            This study investigated the co-occurrence of alcohol and gambling addiction in African American college students.  Participants were 114 African American undergraduate college students at a large, historically black, southeastern university.  Data were collected with a one-time visit to psychology, counseling, and education classrooms at the university. The South Oaks Gambling Screen and the Short Michigan Alcoholism Screening Instrument were administered to the participants.  The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and chi-square tests of independence conducted at the .05 alpha level.

            Results of the study revealed that the co-occurring addictions of alcohol and gambling did not exist among this sample. In evaluating the addictions separately, the results of the study revealed that 50% of the sample scored in potential to probable range for alcohol addiction, while 13.1% of the sample scored potential to probable range for gambling addiction. Future research should focus on exploring addiction in more depth with the African American population. If college students can be identified with addictive behaviors early on, then early identification will allow helping professionals to intervene, thus possibly deterring the growth of the addiction. Assessing addiction in college students is the first step to this effort of prevention; therefore, research must continue in this area.

3:30 a.m. - 4:20 p.m.

Session 16.1   SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT            Salon A                      

Chair: Gary W. Ritter, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville

A Study of School Uniforms: The Impact on Student Achievement

D. Randall Parker, David Gullatt, and Cathy Stockton, Louisiana Tech University

            Principals and teachers are charged with the task of creating and safeguarding environments that are conducive to learning. This must be accomplished in an era that has witnessed a plethora of school violence; students wearing gang-related paraphernalia, designer clothes and shoes; and increased accountability. It should not be a surprise that educators have embraced uniforms to combat some of the negative factors that are not beneficial to the learning environment.

            A causal comparative study was used to examine the impact of school uniforms on student achievement at the elementary, middle, and secondary levels. Nine public schools located in northwestern Louisiana were purposively selected for this study.

            The researchers selected schools whose building level administrator and school policies remained constant during the planning and implementation of mandated uniforms. Three schools were elementary, two were middle schools, and four were high schools.

            Students (n = 1, 680) and teachers (n = 285) completed researcher-constructed surveys. A member of the research team hand delivered surveys to each school. The students were stratified randomly sampled by the building administrator. The building administrator extended the opportunity for all faculty members to complete the survey. After a two-week period, a member of the research team collected the completed student and faculty surveys.

            Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, paired samples t-test, and ANOVA with Scheffe post hoc analysis. Data indicated that the perceived importance of school uniforms varied significantly between types of schools (elementary, middle, and high schools). The perceived implementation of school uniforms varied significantly between types of schools (elementary, middle, and high schools). Student achievement improved at both middle schools and at only one elementary school. Student attendance improved at all of the high schools involved in this study.

A Study of the Status of Recess in Mississippi Public Schools

Rose B. Jones, The University of Southern Mississippi

            The study examined the Status of Recess for Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth-grade students in Mississippi public schools. The intent of this study was to determine: (1) recess availability, (2) health, safety, and cognitive issues of recess and play, (3) if all students (including special needs students) had adequate monitoring, (4) adult/student ratios at recess, (5) need for a recess curriculum, and (6) if recess was not provided, then why not.

            A four-page survey consisting of 28 questions was mailed to 1564 educators in Mississippi public schools in the spring of 2001: (1) 152 superintendents, (2) 668 elementary principals (K-7), (3) 344 secondary principals (7-12), (4) 200 elementary teachers (K-7), and (5) 200 secondary teachers (7-12). Issues addressed: (1) if educators, themselves, exercised regularly and if they felt that students needed regular supervised exercise, (2) if the educators believed that play was important to the overall development of children, young adults, and adults, (3) if teachers had CPR and recess safety training, (4) if playgrounds were inspected periodically for safety including equipment and grounds, (5) how many recess breaks were given daily and the average length of a recess break, and (6) if teachers (monitors) should interact with students during recess.

Of the 1564 educators surveyed, 849 responded giving a 54% return. Data analysis indicated: (1) the higher the grade level, the fewer schools had recess (for example: 90% of 3^rd graders had recess while only 42% of 9th-12^th graders had recess), (2) that a majority of Mississippi educators expressed a necessity for a Mississippi Recess Curriculum; and (3) a majority of Mississippi educators also believed play was important to the overall development of children, young adults, and adults. Several reasons were given for not having recess: (1) lack of time, (2) accident or safety concerns, (3) test score results, and (4) low priority for physical health.

Teacher Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Trimester Scheduling as Compared with Traditional Scheduling

Laura C. Stokes and Joe W. Wilson, University of North Alabama

            The purpose of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of trimester scheduling based on the perceptions of teachers in 10 trimester-scheduled schools.

            Schools throughout the nation have implemented various models of extended period scheduling.  While 4 X 4 scheduling has received considerable research attention to determine its effectiveness, research on the effectiveness of trimester scheduling is essentially non‑existent.  This study provided insight into teacher perceptions of the effectiveness of this model of extended period scheduling.

            The data were collected during the first trimester (Fall 2000) of the second year of trimester scheduling.  The sample included 219 teacher responses from 10 secondary schools.  The data collection instrument contained 60 questions/statements; the first four questions provided descriptive data for the study with the remaining 54 items being arranged in a Likert scale.

            A series of ANOVAS was conducted to test for possible relationships between descriptive data and Likert scale items.  Further, the data were analyzed to determine the mean for each item on the Likert scale to ascertain teacher perceptions of the effectiveness of trimester scheduling as compared to traditional scheduling, the most important factors to consider prior to initiating trimester scheduling, the advantages of trimester scheduling, and factors critical in maintaining trimester scheduling as an effective curriculum tool.

            Teachers rated trimester scheduling as much more effective than regular scheduling.  The study isolated factors to consider when initiating trimester scheduling, as well as the most important advantages, measurable outcomes, and factors in maintaining it as an effective scheduling pattern.

            Teachers in this study perceived trimester scheduling to be more effective than regular scheduling.  They were happier with the work setting, more relaxed, and they believed that the school atmosphere is more positive.

Organizer:      Walter M. Mathews, Mathews Associates, Inc. of New York

Neil G. Amos, Mississippi State University (retired); Fred Bellott, The University of Memphis (retired); Harry L. Bowman, Council on Occupational Education; Eugene A. Jongsma, Director of Educational Assessment, Harcourt School Publishers; Richard Kazelskis, The University of Southern Mississippi; Walter M. Mathews, Mathews Associates, Inc. of New York; Ronald Partridge, The University of Mississippi (retired); John R. Petry, The University of Memphis; Tom Reddick, Tennessee Technological University; Jerry H. Robbins, Eastern Michigan University; and Donald E. Wright, Arkansas State University (retired)

            Because this was the 30th annual meeting of MSERA, the purpose of this session was to reunite several of the primary participants in the formation of MSERA and the planning and execution of its first annual meeting in New Orleans in 1972.  Each of the presenters offered five-minute personal remembrances of those beginning days.  After some interaction among them, questions were entertained from the audience. 

            This session was dedicated to the memory of Dr. Douglas McDonald (1925-2001) who was MSERA’s first vice chairman, financial officer, and newsletter editor, the author of the MSERA constitution, and its fifth president.

Chair: Marie Miller-Whitehead, Tennessee Valley Educators for Excellence

What It’s Like Out There: Field Reports From an Inner-City Youth Survey

Jean N. Clark and James D. Lee, University of South Alabama

            This study stemmed from a five-year, longitudinal inner-city youth survey, now in its fourth summer. Although summary data from the 305-item, 6000+ youth survey (ages 10-18) was given, the focus of this particular study was qualitative, reporting from journals written by the survey team members in summers 1997-2001. Forty student interns served as participants in this study; they were upper-level undergraduates and master’s-level students from nine universities in four states. Their experience ranges from “beginner” to 10-year project assistant. Most had majors in social sciences or education. They visited homes, gained parent permission, and talked with the participants, scheduling them for the assessment. Then in groups of 20-50, the youth completed a survey instrument (read aloud) with 305 items, related to family, community, drugs, violence, hopelessness, spiritual beliefs, and challenges of growing up in poverty. Because interns received class credit, the journal was a course requirement, with a specific three-part format: (1) observation during home visits, test administration, and follow-up activities, (2) personal reactions, feelings, and thoughts, and (3) analysis and interpretation comparing observations with readings, theories, and other experiences. There were five journals weekly for 12 weeks, or 60 entries per person (a total 2400 entries). The journals were analyzed for recurrent theme, issues related to both the study and the sociological environment, and application to the empirical process. There was powerful feedback related to cultural bias, issues of gender and race, stratification, role of the media in maintaining stereotypes, and facets of the survey and interview process. Handouts included quantitative analyses from the larger project, analyses of the field reports, and implications for future research and interventions.

Interpreting Teachers’ Stories to Inform Teacher Education Practices: A Review of the Literature

Jennifer M. Good and Andrew Weaver, Auburn University

            Preservice teachers enter teacher education programs with clear definitions of “good teaching,” and they often use these pre-established definitions of teaching to make sense out of their coursework as they are confronted with new educational theories and practices. In fact, in many cases, preservice teachers’ personal beliefs, based on their actual life histories, actually outweigh the philosophies and theories presented in teacher education courses (Holt-Reynolds, 1992). Butt (1990) noted that perspectives of classroom pedagogy change per individual based on the complex interaction of curriculum, content, and preservice teachers’ definitions and perceptions based on their personal histories. Thus, it becomes vital for teacher educators to find a means to unlock the personal histories of individual students and use these histories to help students make sense of the theories that are presented to them in teacher education programs.

            Beginning first with the works of experts in the area of life history in teacher education, such as Holt-Reynold, Goodson, Knowles, and Bullough, the presenters first explored the literature to ascertain the important impact of life history on preservice teachers’ understandings of educational theories and practices. Then presented were methods that uncovered personal life histories and assisted students in connecting their life histories to meaning making in teacher education programs. Finally, the limitations and difficulties when completing life history research, such as interpretation within a given social context, difficulty of interpreting personal stories that allow as much power to the narrator as to the researcher, and the lack of generalizability were discussed.

            In spite of the limitations of life history pedagogy and research, the use of life history in teacher education and research still provides important and relevant information that can help inform and shape the direction of teacher education programs. Life histories help to bridge the gap between the theoretical and the practical in teacher education programs, and they help to encourage the development of reflective practitioners in the teaching profession (Sikes & Troyna, 1991). An exploration of life history within the context of teacher education helps to initiate the formation of teacher identity. Although these implications can help to inform teacher education programs, life histories of preservice teachers often remain uncharted territory. This review of the literature fully investigated the research base from this area while encouraging teacher educators to adopt life history pedagogies in the classroom.

A Look at Developmentally Appropriate Practices in Public Schools

Byra L. Ramsey and David Bell, Arkansas Tech University

            The purpose of this study was to examine Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP) in area schools and to provide performance-based outcomes for students enrolled in DAP classes. Students were given a 12-point questionnaire, adapted from the 12 position statements of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), using a Likert-type scale to determine the frequencies that DAP occurred in schools where students were engaged in practicums.

            Data collected from the 35 student surveys and narratives were used to conduct a t-test comparison and write the narratives for the recommendations that included strategies that could:  (1) empower students to promote DAP in their classrooms, (2) help alleviate teacher burn-out, (3) help resolve classroom discipline problems, (4) encourage colleagues who are not using DAP, and (5) promote administrator’s understanding of the necessity of integrating DAP into mandated state and local requirements. The results of the study will act as a benchmark for future research. 

Chair: Gloria Dianne Richardson, University of West Alabama

Increasing and Decreasing Anxiety: A Study of Doctoral Students in Education Research

Vicki A. Wilson, Wilmington College, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            As part of an ongoing study of statistics anxiety, 70 doctoral students in two research universities, one in the South and one on the West Coast, completed a Likert-scale instrument asking them to rate from 1 “Not at all” to 5 “A great deal” the extent to which 17 elements increased the anxiety and 20 elements decreased the anxiety that they experienced in educational research courses. Items were compiled from the literature on statistics and educational research pedagogy, as well as on answers of students in previous research conducted by the authors. Students were also asked to list additional elements that increased or decreased their anxiety.

            Means and standard deviations were computed for each item in the survey.  Ranking at the top for increasing anxiety was the amount of work due for the educational research class, followed by the amount of material covered in class, tests, the difficulty of the work, and the amount of work due for other classes. Ranking at the top for decreasing anxiety was getting a good grade on an assignment, followed by completing an assignment and receiving encouragement from the teacher.

            Analysis of the open-ended questions revealed the following themes for increasing anxiety: dissatisfaction with the teaching style of the professor, working in groups, feelings of being unprepared to take a class at this level, amount of work, the anxiety of other students, personal time management, career/work pressures, testing, inability to understand the textbook, and difficulties with technology. Themes that emerged for decreasing anxiety included the availability of the professor to meet individually with students, help and support of classmates, previous experience with statistics, sufficient examples and practice problems, clear explanations of difficult material, and extensive feedback from the professor. Several students reported experiencing little or no anxiety in the educational research classes.

The Relationship Between Library Anxiety and Social Interdependence

Qun G. Jiao, Baruch College Library/The City University of New York , and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Library anxiety, which is an unpleasant feeling or emotional state that comes to the fore in library settings, has been found to affect many college students. According to researchers, library anxiety is a multidimensional construct that can prevent students from using the library effectively.

            Because many library-anxious students tend to perceive that other students are proficient at utilizing the library, whereas they alone are incompetent, and that their ineptness is a source of humiliation, it is likely that level of competitiveness is an antecedent of library anxiety. Further, because some college students use the library on an individual basis, whereas others tend to utilize the library to fulfill group goals (e.g., studying for an examination), it is possible that level of individualism and/or cooperativeness predicts level of library anxiety. However, these associations have not been formally tested. Thus, the present study examined the relationship between social interdependence and library anxiety.

            Participants were 115 graduate students from various disciplines who were administered the Library Anxiety Scale (LAS) and the Social Interdependence Scale (SIS). The LAS assesses levels of library anxiety.  This instrument has the following five subscales: barriers with staff, affective barriers, comfort with the library, knowledge of the library, and mechanical barriers. The SIS measures individuals' cooperative, competitive, and individualistic perceptions. The higher the score on each of the three SIS subscales, the more cooperative, the more competitive, or the more individualistic the respondents consider themselves to be.  Scores on these scales are relatively independent so that a student could conceivably receive a high score on all three scales.

            A canonical correlation analysis (Rc = 0.41) revealed that cooperativeness and individualism were related significantly to barriers with staff, affective barriers, and knowledge of the library. Mechanical barriers served as a suppressor variable. Implications were discussed.

4:45 p.m. - 5:20 p.m.

Session 17.1   TOWN MEETING    Salon B

            The Town Meeting is an opportunity for members to provide input to the officers and board members about the future direction of MSERA. Attendees will be asked to provide input on two questions: (1) What are the two or three most significant goals you believe MSERA should pursue in the next five years? and (2) What barriers would prevent us from attaining these goals?

5:30 p.m. MSERA BUSINESS MEETING     Salon D

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