9:30 a.m. - 10:20 a.m.

Session 20.1   WRITING GRANT PROPOSALS (Training, 1 hour)        Salon D

Trainer:          John R. Petry, The University of Memphis

            The session emphasized the following: (1) sources of grant and project funding (local, state, and federal sources, and foundations), (2) initiating activities: personnel concerns, contract issues, ethical issues, work/task analysis, costing, scheduling, and network analysis, (3) project management: budgeting, meeting deadlines, noting resource changes, reviews and reports, and evaluation procedures, and (4) deliverables (products and materials).  The knowledge bases and skill requirements were cited:  (1) teamwork, (2) critical thinking, (3) problem solving, (4) professional responsibility, (5) values, (6) time management, and (7) best professional practice. Emerging computer applications were also discussed. Participants spent time in imagining an educational need, submitting a short proposal to a funding agency to create a project to meet the need, and managed the project, noting deficiencies in design, discrepancies in meeting goals, and success in the achievement of objectives.

9:30 a.m. - 9:50 a.m. (Mini-Sessions)

Chair: Marie Miller-Whitehead, Tennessee Valley Educators for Excellence

John A. Sargent, Louisiana Tech University

            This study examined the impact of a holistic reading curriculum on the reading achievement of 10 students with learning disabilities.  This qualitative case study sought to answer the following research question: Will the Achieve reading curriculum increase the reading achievement of students with learning disabilities in a selected seventh- grade special education classroom in a sixth-to-eighth grade middle school in northwestern Louisiana?  The Achieve reading curriculum is a holistic reading curriculum based on constructivist principles specifically designed for middle school students with learning disabilities.

            Holistic reading education for students with learning disabilities is not well researched.  Most of the studies dealing with holistic reading education have examined its results on the regular education population.  Despite the recent negative media portrayal regarding holistic reading instruction practices, an extensive literature review demonstrated the efficacy of this approach.  Therefore, the researcher sought to determine its effectiveness for students with learning disabilities.

            The researcher conducted an intrinsic case study using teacher research in one middle school seventh grade special education classroom.  The participants in the study were 10 seventh-grade students with learning disabilities.  The study took place over a two-week period in April 2001.  Research efforts were focused on observations made by the teacher-researcher, reading skill questions posed to the students, and written work samples obtained from the students

            Qualitative content analysis yielded six recurring patterns and themes in the data. These six themes and patterns suggested the Achieve reading curriculum was effective for increasing the reading achievement of middle school students with learning disabilities.  Implications from the study suggest that holistic reading curriculums for students with learning disabilities need to be further examined. 

Chair: George E. Marsh II, The University of Alabama

Yvetta George, Glennelle Halpin, and Gerald Halpin, Auburn University

            Many states are implementing high stakes tests that often put pressure on teachers and students. For example, state legislators are making decisions about results from the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test that will impact grade promotion, high school graduation, teacher pay raises, and vouchers for students to attend private schools. This study was designed to determine the perceptions of educators regarding testing in the schools.

            Teachers (N = 136) and administrators (N = 17) in public and private schools in Florida were surveyed. Results showed that respondents (85%) thought that there was too much testing in the schools. They (92%) said that teachers spend too much time preparing students for testing today. Almost all (97%) agreed that teachers and students have too much pressure put on them for high test scores. An equally large percentage (97%) recognized that teachers mind if test scores affect salaries. Further, they (87%) did not believe that vouchers should be offered to students in failing schools. Although teachers and administrators differed significantly regarding pressures on teachers and students for high test scores, the two groups generally were similar in their opinions. Implications of these results were discussed.

Session 21.3 DECREASING CLASSROOM PROBLEM BEHAVIOR WHILE INCREASING TEACHER INTEGRITY Salon C

Chair: Sarah S. Pate, Birmingham (Alabama) City Schools     

Tawnya J. Smith and James R. Meadows, Mississippi State University

            Managing disruptive classroom behavior may be frustrating and difficult for novice and expert teachers. This study described the consultation process that was undertaken in a self-contained, general education seventh-grade classroom. The problem behaviors of the classroom were out-of-seat, talking, and off-task. Neither the teacher nor the student teacher felt that they were competent in keeping students under control. A group contingency classroom intervention was designed and implemented. The intervention was implemented inconsistently, that is, only when the researcher was observing. However, there was a slight decrease in classroom problem behavior. Because of the low teacher treatment integrity, the researcher, teacher, and student teacher designed a new classroom intervention. Then the intervention was modeled and practiced several times. As a result, the teachers implemented this intervention more consistently, and this frequently resulted in an even further decrease of classroom problem behaviors. A detailed description of the intervention was discussed, as well as a quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of the interventions. In addition, a discussion of the importance of including the consultee in the consultation relationship was included.

Session 21.4 AN ANALYSES OF TEACHERS', COUNSELORS', AND ADMINISTRATORS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR MIDDLE SCHOOLS' ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Riverside East

Chair: Lawrence J. Leonard, Louisiana Tech University

Gahan Bailey and Scott Hopkins, University of South Alabama,

and Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

            As middle schools struggle to lose the stigma of being "caught in the middle," it has become essential to document the success of those qualities and practices that identify an ideal middle school. The National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform has established its "Schools-to-Watch-Criteria" indexed under four core domains: (1) developmental responsiveness, (2) academic excellence, (3) social equity, and (4) organizational structures and processes. These criteria served as a model for proposing middle school improvement and professional development.

            This presentation focused on a partnership between the University of South Alabama and the 21 middle schools in Mobile County, Alabama. Partnership goals were two-fold. Working under the assumption that for middle schools to be successful, an effective means to assess the viability of their programs must be available, the project's first goal was to assess the schools' present organizational culture/environment. Second, the project aimed to bring university faculty and middle school educators together to design school improvement plans for areas targeted as needing improvement.

            In achieving the first goal, the Middle-School Description Survey (MSDS), a 53-item attitudinal measure of educators' perceptions of an idealized middle school organizational culture, was administered to teachers, counselors, and administrators in each school. University faculty then worked with each school to develop school improvement plans, the second project goal, based on the data analyses. The results of the MSDS were presented along with a summary of the elements of school improvement plans.

10:00 a.m. - 10:20 a.m. (Mini-Sessions)

Chair: Marie Miller-Whitehead, Tennessee Valley Educators for Excellence

Corliss Jean McCallister, The Anthony School, and Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            The case study of Edward, a congenitally blind undergraduate student who successfully completed a basic statistics course, is presented.  Accommodations specific to his blindness included:  (1) textbook on tape and review tapes before examinations, (2) a talking calculator, (3) graphs made on Braille paper and other tactile teaching aids (e.g. distributions cut from cardboard), and (4) extensive tutoring.  The Nemeth Code, a system of mathematical notation developed for blind students, was not used because of its complexity. 

            Cognitive and affective difficulties encountered were sometimes similar to those experienced by beginning statistics students and exacerbated by Edward's disability, and sometimes were unique.  Affective problems included overcoming low mathematical self-efficacy and resolving ethical dilemmas.  Cognitive problems were classified as conceptual, computational, experiential, practical, and symbolic.  Some instructional strategies that were successful in overcoming these cognitive difficulties may also be useful for sighted students.  Examples of these strategies included the use of: (1) kinesthetic explanations for standard deviation, (2) cardboard curves with rubber bands for teaching problems related to areas under the normal curve, (3) very small data sets when introducing new concepts, and (4) one memorable problem for each formula studied.  Assessment accommodations allowed Edward to do examination problems orally, and testing time allocation was doubled.  Unexpected factors that impacted his performance included mental fatigue because of extended periods of mental arithmetic and distractions due to auditory interruptions. 

            Recommendations for teachers and tutors of blind or visually impaired students included: (1) basing the instructional approach on information processing theory, (2) choosing accommodations based on the kind and severity of the visual disability, and (3) individualizing instruction based on the preferences of the student.

Chair: George E. Marsh II, The University of Alabama

Susan P. Santoli, University of South Alabama

            Although there is much disagreement about what should be included in history curriculums, agreement exists on the need to emphasize World War II as a turning point in world history.  Research indicates that in today's social studies classrooms, both in the United States and internationally, the primary tool used by teachers to convey an understanding of that war is still the textbook.  The specific purpose of this study was to analyze and compare information concerning selected World War II events and people in one secondary level, national history textbook for college bound students from Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States.  The textbooks were selected with help from the International Textbook Institute in Braunschweig, Germany. The United States text was selected from a list of frequently used United States history texts published by the American Textbook Council. Native speakers of the language translated the four non-English textbooks selections into English.  A method similar to one used in two previous content analysis studies was used as the basis of the textbook analysis.  A list of people and events was compiled, based on the Tables of Contents of several United States history texts and input from faculty in the history department of a local university.  The development of such a list was consistent with the methodology used in other textbook content studies.  Items on the content analysis list were used as the basis of determining how much space in each textbook was devoted to each item.  Similarities and differences in coverage were then analyzed.  Discussed in this session were the results of this study along with the educational implications of the results.  

 Chair: Sarah S. Pate, Birmingham (Alabama) City Schools

Patricia S. O'Sullivan and Beth Vaughan‑Wrobel, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, and Diane Austin, University of Arkansas

            The purpose of this presentation was to describe a prototypic evaluation for a newly developed entity within the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, the Schmieding Center for Senior Health and Education (SCSHE).  This center provides patient care services and educational programs for older adults in northwestern Arkansas.  Similar centers are under development in six regions of the state and will need to evaluate their services and programs.  The plan developed for SCSHE must be examined for its effectiveness before adoption by other sites.

            The SCSHE evaluation plan includes formative and summative evaluation and a special section on outcomes pertinent to the health care environment.  SCSHE provides education for individuals to be trained in providing care to elderly persons in the home, for health professional students seeking expertise in geriatrics, for health care personnel seeking continuing education in care of the elderly person, and for members of the community.  The evaluation plan had to address these diverse learners who range from those without a high school education to those with degrees as professionals.  The evaluation also addresses the impact that SCSHE has on the community at large and whether the organizational structure of the SCSHE is effective in meeting its goals.

            The evaluation was accomplished using a variety of techniques including paper and pencil and phone surveys and focus groups.  This required developing databases and optically scanned surveys, and training individuals to administer the instruments.  The results of these experiences with developing and implementing this plan for the first year of (2001) were described.  The authors made recommendations on how the evaluation plan could be modified for SCSHE and for adaptation by the other centers as they develop their own evaluation plan.

Chair: Lawrence J. Leonard, Louisiana Tech University

Douglas E. Masini, East Tennessee State University

            In looking at basic leadership models, information is rarely found concerning the leadership traits of one of the most important leaders in our society, the mother.  The presenter reflected on several models of leadership that are found in both textbooks and feminist literature and attempted to conjure a model inclusive of popularly held beliefs regarding the role of mothers in family and society.  Are mothers seen as leaders?  An ancient piece of Oriental wisdom states, paraphrasing, that if the Earth's mothers negotiated treaties there could be no more wars.  If theoretical maternalism makes sense in the rearing of new citizens, why not maternalistic governance of municipalities, countries, or the world?  Salient examples of feminist leadership that inform maternalism have given it a multi-faceted approach to problem solving in the wake of an ineffective paternalistic worldview.  The review of the literature revealed five agendas of inquiry regarding maternal leadership:  (1) Mystical Powers of Mothers, (2) Behavior of Women in Power, (3) Critical (Maternal) Literacy in the Workplace, (4) Maternal Leading and Radical Feminism, and (5) Maternal Leadership: The Road to Praxis.  Maternal leading is a complex form of leadership that utilizes powerful tools and embraces an empathetic approach to leadership with an emphasis on love, caring for others, and a positive focus.

10:30 a.m. - 11:20 a.m.

Session 22.1   SCIENCE EDUCATION      Salon A

 Chair: William A. Spencer, Auburn University

Implementation of an Observational System for Hands-On Discovery Learning in Science

Clifford A. Hofwolt, Vanderbilt University

            Practicum and student teaching supervisors have long used observational instruments to view teaching episodes to provide feedback and evaluation to practicum and student teachers.  With the current emphasis on hands-on, constructivist teaching, these observation instruments have proved to be insensitive to these teaching techniques. The discovery observational instrument was developed to include categories for discovery-oriented, hands-on activities and activities in which students construct meaning from their experiences.  The instrument has been validated by experts and has an inter-rater reliability of 91%.  What has been the effect on preservice elementary teachers effectiveness when teaching science lessons in elementary school settings?

            Over the course of four semesters, the observational instrument was used to provide feedback to elementary preservice teachers when they teach science lessons in practicum settings.  Data were collected regarding the frequency of hands-on science activities of a discovery nature, and the effect that feedback had on the design of future science lessons.

            The results indicated that elementary preservice teachers responded very favorably with their supervisors’ ability to detect the presence or absence of discovery learning in the classroom.  Preservice teachers indicated that the feedback has helped them clarify their notions of what constitutes discovery learning.  The results also indicated that successive lessons after an initial lesson that is observed had a higher degree of discovery learning than did initial lessons.

Effect of Physical Science Learning on Success in Chemistry

Alison B. Barrett, Tennessee State University

            United States students have been found to have science skills that begin at a high level in the fourth grade but decline over time until they are very low by the twelfth grade. An overview of historical data documenting the decline was presented. Then several options for curriculum reform were discussed. Data on a study of the effect of physical science and biology grades on subsequent chemistry grades were presented. Fifty-five students from a middle Tennessee high school were surveyed concerning the grades they had made in physical science, biology, and chemistry. Analysis by multiple regression shows a predictive relationship with statistical significance of <.0004 between student scores in physical science and chemistry.  No correlation was found between physical science and biology grades or between biology and chemistry grades. Results would seem to support the argument that teaching fundamentals of physics before teaching chemistry is beneficial. Results would seem to refute the argument that it is important to teach biology before chemistry or that it is important to teach chemistry and physics concepts before biology.

The Effects of Computer Animated Dissection Versus Preserved Animal Dissection on the Student Achievement in A High School Biology Classroom

Ronda V. Paulson and Patrick Kariuki, Milligan College

            For years, the dissection of preserved animal specimens has been an integral part of the high school biology experience.  In the United States, it has been common practice for centuries to dissect such vertebrates as frogs, cats, mice, and fetal pigs (Haury, 1996).  Until the late 1980's, dissection was a completely accepted practice with 75-80% of all high school biology students dissecting frogs (Orlans, 1988). It was around that same time that a growing number of educators and students began to question the need for dissection in the secondary science classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of computer-animated dissection techniques versus the effectiveness of traditional dissection techniques as related to student achievement. 

            The sample used was 104 general biology students from a small, rural high school in northeastern Tennessee.  Random selection was used to separate the students into an experimental group and a control group.  The control group dissected a preserved earthworm.  The experimental group dissected the earthworm using a CD-Rom dissection tool.  Each student then took a test over the earthworm.  This exact procedure was then used with the dissection of the frog.  Data were analyzed using a t-test for independent means.  Results indicated that a significant difference existed between the academic achievements of students in the control group versus students in the experimental group.  The academic achievement of males in the control group versus males in the experimental group and females in the control group versus females in the experimental group was also examined.  The data were analyzed using a t-test for independent means.  The results indicated that there was no significant difference in the academic achievement of the two groups; however, further research is needed in this area.

Session 22.2   EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION        Salon B

Chair: Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University/Lincoln Parish (Louisiana) Schools

Louanne Parker and David Saarnio, Arkansas State University, and Catherine Williams, Valley View High School (Arkansas)

            The transition from elementary school to junior high school is difficult for many adolescents (Eccles et al.,1997).  Students must cope with new environments and new expectations.  Adapting to the new environment can be problematic for students. Educators need to understand what concerns adolescents have about transitions and develop programs to make transitions smoother.  The present study investigated issues students identify as being of concern during this transition stage and examined whether a simple program would impact those concerns.  A program targeting incoming junior high students was developed to ease the transition from an elementary sixth grade to a junior high school seventh grade.

            Sixth graders (n=89) completed a survey to identify concerns about entering junior high school. A one-day program was held during the summer to address concerns identified in the survey.  The program introduced transitioning students to teachers and the principal and was facilitated by eighth-grade students, who served as mentors. A tour of the school was given and included instructions to help students understand some of the concerns they will face (e.g., how to open lockers, getting around in the building). The same survey used earlier was given at the end of the program (n=87) to determine if students’ concerns about transitioning to junior high were assuaged.

            The data indicated that some concerns stood out above the others. Further, analyses reveal that many of the primary concerns were positively influenced by the program. For example, 81% (pretest) of the students said that “taking a shower and getting dressed for P.E.” was a concern. Only 50% were still somewhat or very concerned after the program.  Similar results were found for other major concerns.  The present project showed that a brief program has potential to impact students’ concerns across school transitions.

The Transition Practices of Kindergarten Teachers and Parents’ Involvement in Kindergarten

Leanne Whiteside-Mansell, University of Arkansas for Medical Science, and Robert Bradley, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            To assist children and families with the adjustment to kindergarten, and to protect them from the stresses that accompany major changes in daily life, schools frequently engage in a set of activities (called transition practices) aimed at increasing child comfort and parent involvement. This study examined relations between kindergarten transition practices and parental involvement in school-related activities for different types of children, different characteristics of families, and different school and community conditions.  Of particular interest was whether specific types of transition practices were related to parent involvement and whether efforts by schools to encourage parent involvement mattered more for high-risk parents.

            A total of 235 kindergarten students and their teachers from three states participated in the study.  Data were collected from the teachers at the beginning and end of the kindergarten school year.  Most (89%) mothers had completed at least 12 years of education and were married (82%).  Fifty percent of mothers and 97% of fathers reported working more than 30 hours a week. On average, teachers had 9.7 years of experience teaching kindergarten (SD = 7.5). Twenty-six percent of the schools were described as neighborhood schools, and 22% included students from a large rural area.

            Using bivariate and multivariate procedures, the study found that no specific type of transition practice appears to be critical to improving parent involvement, but the combination of personal attention to individual children and parents prior to school entry and more general attention to parents and children after school entry was associated with an increased parental involvement.  These efforts appear to be equally successful with both low-risk and high-risk families.  As expected, families at demographic risk were less likely to show high levels of involvement.

Kindergarten Teachers' Views on Children's Readiness for School

Huey‑Ling F. Lin, Alabama State University, and Jeffrey Gorrell, George Mason University

            Because readiness is a culturally defined term, it is critical to understand the expectations of kindergarten teachers about what skills and behaviors are necessary in different schools. Participants were 3047 kindergarten teachers from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort in 1998-1999. Data from the National Center for Educational Statistics questionnaires for kindergarten teachers and administrators were used to create teacher-level and school-level variables.  Combinations of statistical analyses (descriptive analyses, multivariate analysis of variance) were used to answer the following questions:  (1) What criteria are used by kindergarten teachers to determine when children are “ready for school”?  and (2) To what extent do kindergarten teachers within different schools' context (geographic region, denoted urbanicity, school types) differ in their conceptions about readiness?

            Overall findings from kindergarten teacher-reported readiness items revealed a stronger emphasis on the social aspect of a child's coping skill than a child's academic skill. Kindergarten teachers saw preparing children to meet the social and cultural demands as the cornerstone of children's learning at kindergarten while they regarded environmental support as important. Kindergarten teachers who worked in different geographic regions, denoted urban cities, and school types had significantly different views of children's readiness for school [F (39, 455533) = 153.85, p < .001; F (26, 307668) = 264.78, p < .001; F (39, 461505) = 204.33, p < .001)].

            This study demonstrated that readiness criteria for children to enter schools may be constructed based on the needs and values of community and the assumptions about development and learning theories. Providing children with opportunities to the interactive life of the classroom, to develop social skill, and to acquire appropriate forms of behavior with groups seemed to be a highly valuable goal in kindergartens.

Chair: Kathleen M.T. Collins, Saint Mary's University of Minnesota

New Teachers: Profiles in Commitment

Jack E. Slaybaugh, Cay Evans, and Ronald J. Byrd, Louisiana State University-Shreveport

            Nationally, over 30% of new teachers leave the profession within the first two years (Slaybaugh, Evans, & Byrd, 1995/96).  In Louisiana, 27% of new teachers leave by the end of their fifth year (Burns, 2000).  To address this concern, Louisiana implemented the Louisiana Teacher Assistance and Assessment Program - a comprehensive induction, mentoring, and assessment program for new teachers.  This paper presented the results of new teachers’ attitudes and perceptions of this program.

Implementing a New Field Experience Observation System

Clara Carroll, Linda H. Thornton, and Jan C. Morgan, Harding University

            The purpose of this discussion session was to describe the development of Harding University's field experience observation system, HUFEOS, and the analysis of the data collected using the new instrument.  The HUFEOS system is an adaptation of Pathwise, an observation system for first-year teachers.  Data were collected from the first semester of using the new instrument.

            The theory supporting the development of this performance assessment instrument is described in  Charlotte Danielson's “Enhancing Professional Practice, A Framework for Teaching,” Anna Maria Villegas's paper, "The Competence Needed by Beginning Teachers in a Multicultural Society," and Ann Reynolds's " What is a competent beginning teaching: A review of the literature."

            During fall 1998, summer 1999, and fall 1999, three faculty members were trained in Pathwise to become certified trainers.  During summer 1999 faculty members developed an instrument for use in assessing student teachers to bring the assessment of student teachers better in line with the mission and vision statements of Harding University.  Instead of using the Pathwise instrument intact, the decision was made to make adaptations and name the assessment tool HUFEOS.  Permission was granted by ETS to adapt Pathwise. To facilitate adaptation, input from cooperating teachers and other stakeholders was obtained by field-testing some components of the system (fall 1999).  The training began in the summer of 1999 with the training of the university supervisors.  By the spring of 2001, 720 cooperating teachers representing 30 school districts were trained.  All university supervisors, even adjunct, were trained.

            Ninety-nine per cent of the students passed the Praxis II Principles of Learning and Teaching.  The data showed that candidates were strongest in Domain B on both PLT and HUFEOS assessment instruments.  The weakest area was in Domain D on both PLT and HUFEOS.

Professional Development Sites: From Policies To Practicalities

Trevor F. Hutchins, Belmont University, and Steve Baum, Granbery Elementary School

            For the past two years Belmont University has worked with a number of schools to develop a Professional Development Site (PDS) program that embeds methods courses for elementary and middle school licensure within several schools. The 15 credit hours of methods courses were initially placed into a one-semester block and then this block was placed into a PDS school. For the last year, faculty from Belmont University and school faculty, working from the NCATE Standards, have been discussing what a PDS might look like, the roles of school and university faculty in a PDS, how a PDS might be structured, and how a PDS might be assessed as part of both candidate development and school development. This discussion paper was designed to:  (1) examine some of the research and other literature on Professional Development Schools, (2) show how the NCATE PDS Standards have been used to guide the development process at Belmont University, (3) engage participants in the issues raised by the NCATE Standards with a particular emphasis on the nature of collaboration, (4) share some of the products of collaboration related to the roles of participants in a PDS, program structure, course development and assessment, and (5) discuss the research agenda developed by the PDS team.

Session 22.4   SCHOOL REFORM/SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT         Salon D                      

Chair: Marcia R. O'Neal, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Influences of School Social Webs on Cohesion and Student Achievement

Cathleen S. Hightower, University of New Orleans

            This study investigated the relationship between the types of teacher interaction in public elementary schools and the level of cohesion around change and improved student achievement. This research focused on the relationship between teacher interaction and level of a school’s capacity for collegial cohesion around change and student achievement, and how both of these factors, in turn, related to student achievement itself.

            Three types of school social webs were examined for levels of cohesion (unity of the group):  (1) those dominated by high or low levels of friendship-based maintenance of social support interaction, (2) those with high or low levels of production-management for efficient completion of organizational work-interaction, and (3) those dominated by high or low levels of interaction around instructional innovation.  The study hypothesized that schools at which teachers cohere around those practices that respond to the needs of the students in a particular school based on accepted educational theory, statistically significant empirical studies, reflective-teacher observation, and student achievement data can predict improved student achievement. The study used sociometric measures of density of teacher interaction, the extent to which all possible relations among teachers are present-around each of these constructs (maintenance of social support interaction, production interaction, and interaction around instructional innovation) combined with teacher perceptions of cohesion as a means to interpret the school conditions that best lead to teacher cohesion leading to student achievement.

            The study hypothesized that high levels of teacher interaction around instructional innovation as mediated through faculty cohesion around change are the school conditions that best predict improved student achievement.

The Effect of Participatory Teacher Research Professional Development on Teacher Efficacy and Empowerment

Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas

            This study examined the effect of participation in teacher research on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs.  More specifically, Bandura's social cognitive theory was used as a theoretical framework to examine relationships between efficacy and three predictors (i.e., teacher empowerment, collaboration, and perceptions of school climate) in the context of a teacher research professional development initiative.  A secondary purpose was to extend the Participatory Research and Development Model (PR&D) of teacher research to teachers in an alternative school setting.  This form of professional development is potentially quite meaningful for participating teachers and effectual on learning environments.

            Eleven teachers from an alternative education school participated in the academic year-long teacher research project.  Data were collected in a mixed methodology framework via quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews, observations, and field notes.

            Substantial gains were observed from pre- to posttest for general teaching efficacy (M = 1.18, SD = .66) and personal teaching efficacy (M = 1.36, SD = .26) on the six-point scale.  Collaboration had a moderate average gain of .42 (SD = .26) on the seven-point scale.  Empowerment and perceptions of school climate increased only slightly.  Repeated measures analyses supported the growth of efficacy.  The occasion source of variance was statistically significant and had a large effect size in both cases (general, F = 35.03, p < .001, eta-squared = 28.79%; personal, F = 302.47, p < .001, eta-squared = 56.69%).  These results suggested that teacher research may be an important means of professional development by which to impact teacher efficacy in alternative education teachers.  Other analyses were conducted.

            The present study supported the hypothesis that teacher research can positively impact both general and personal teaching efficacy in alternative education teachers.  It also appeared to impact teachers' level of collaboration, another important variable in educational reform efforts.  Implications for the findings were discussed.

Is There a Connection: Teacher Empowerment, Teachers' Sense of Responsibility and Student Success

Barbara N. Martin and Judy A. Johnson, Southwest Missouri State University, and Barbara Crossland, Hollister Public Schools

            The research questions critical to this study focused on possible relationships between teachers’ perceived levels of empowerment in the workplace, teachers’ perceived levels of responsibility for student learning, and the level of students’ success as measured by standardized achievement test instruments.  The questions were:  (1) Is there a relationship between teachers’ perceived level of empowerment and perceived degree of teachers’ sense of responsibility for positive student outcomes?  (2) Is there a relationship between teachers' perceived level of empowerment and perceived degree of teachers' sense of responsibility for negative student outcomes?  (3) Is there a relationship between perceived degree of teachers’ sense of responsibility for student outcomes and student achievement?  and (4)  Is there a relationship between teachers’ perceived level of empowerment and student achievement?

            The empowerment of school stakeholders holds considerable promise for facilitating the changes in schools. Teacher participation in decision making has been promoted for many reasons. Teacher participation is believed to enhance teacher professionalization through improvements in commitment, organizational climate, motivation, and job satisfaction (Retzlaff, 1997).

            The population for this study consisted of classroom teachers from a midwestern state.  The representative sample for this study was selected from small (up to 1000 students) and mid-sized (1001-2500 students) school districts. Subjects were selected at each grade level with the intention of obtaining representation of those teachers at varying levels of their careers (non-tenured, tenured, and veteran). A total of 271 teachers were surveyed.

            Participating classroom teachers were administered the Responsibility for Student Achievement Scale (RSA) by Guskey (1981) and the School Participant Empowerment Scale (SPES) by Short and Rinehart (1992a). Teachers’ perceptions as measured by the RSA and SPES provided the primary data for this study.  This study utilized a quantitative data collection design. Participating classroom teachers were administered the Responsibility for Student Achievement Scale (RSA) and the School Participant Empowerment Scale (SPES).  Teachers’ perceptions as measured by the RSA and SPES provided the primary data for this study. Analyses of correlation coefficients were used.

            The research questions central to the study focused on relationships between teachers’ perceived empowerment in the workplace(SPES), teachers’ perceived levels of responsibility for student learning (RSA), and the students’ learning as measured by standardized test instrument. Analyses of correlation coefficients revealed a statistically significant relationship between empowerment and responsibility for positive student outcomes. No other significant correlation emerged.  Apparently, student achievement is a complex construct not entirely dependent on empowerment or teacher sense of responsibility.

            The findings from this study indicate that teachers were willing to accept credit for students' success, but were reluctant to accept blame for students' failure to achieve. The data indicated that the construct of teacher empowerment and a sense of responsibility for student outcomes were important to a positive school climate and increased teacher efficacy. However, the effect on student achievement appeared to be secondary, if at all.

            The findings in this study suggested several tangents that may prove interesting for further research. It appeared likely that the voluntary nature of the research design resulted in a halo effect. Also, this research study was conducted in a rural area of the midwest. It is likely that teachers in rural areas tend to perceive themselves with increased status and impact. A study involving large schools could prove interesting.

Chair: Russell West, East Tennessee State University

Reading Achievement in Urban and Rural Schools: Class Size, Gender, and Diversity

Jo Ann Belk, The University of Memphis, and Charley Sparks, Gerald Calais, and Marilyn Larmon, McNeese State University

            In examining the literature concerning reading achievement in urban and rural schools, a number of factors appeared to influence students’ achievement.   Some of the factors included class size, gender, and diversity.  Educators need to be aware of these factors and their implications for teaching and learning.

            In relation to class size, a number of studies supported the benefit of smaller class sizes.  In response to a 10-year decline in student achievement in California, its legislature passed a bill that committed more than $1 billion a year to class size reduction.    Evaluations after the second and third years of this program indicated that achievement increased more in the smaller classes as compared with the larger classes.

            In examining the differences of achievement related to gender, a review of the literature supported the fact that females tended to have higher achievement in reading. This was more apparent in the primary grades.  In most of the studies, the effect size pertaining to achievement was moderate.

            Diversity appeared to be a major factor associated with reading achievement.  In a number of studies a significant difference in reading achievement between white and non-white students was found.  White students tended to score higher in achievement than the non-white students.   

            A review of the literature indicated that class size, gender, and diversity influenced reading achievement.  Implications for teaching included reducing class sizes and varying methods of teaching to meet the needs of a diverse population of students.  Research-based, best-practices methods should be used to help all students increase achievement.

Small Classes and the Test-Score Achievement Gap

C. M. Achilles, Eastern Michigan University, and Jeremy D. Finn, SUNY Buffalo

            Educational policy continues to be unclear about class size and student outcomes.  Class size and pupil‑teacher ratio (PTR) results are often used synonymously, but this is incorrect because the terms are not the same.  Small classes provide many benefits.  What is their impact on achievement gaps?

            Considerable concern is expressed about closing the "achievement gap."  This usually means trying to make more equal the average group scores on some outcome measure, such as a standardized test, between majority and minority students, often defined by race or ethnicity.  Title I emphasizes closing the achievement gap between disadvantaged and not-disadvantaged students (etc.). 

            This paper showed a focused compilation, review, and analysis of test-score outcomes presented in high-profile small-class or class-size reduction (CSR) efforts in the United States, 1978‑2001.  Although the focus was early grades, long-term and upper-grade results were included.  Primary research, state and district statistics, professional literature, and news media reports form data for this presentation.

            The findings were four sections:  (1) section one discusses the need for independent research on important education issues such as class size and achievement gap, (2) section two begins with a call for clear definition of terms in any class-size discussion and provides data from Project STAR (Student Teacher Achievement Ratio), a longitudinal, large-scale randomized educational experiment, (3) section three presents evaluation and inferential evidence from non-STAR sources related to class size and student achievement; and (4) section four offers a summary, conclusions, and some recommendations. 

            The evidence was clear.  Small classes in early elementary grades (K-3) reduced the test-score achievement gap between or among groups.  Students must begin small classes when they start school (K or Pre-K).  The class-size treatment must be intense (all day, every day) and of sufficient duration (three and preferably four years).  Policy and practice implications were discussed.

Erosion of Instructional Time: Teacher Concerns

Lawrence J. Leonard, Louisiana Tech University

            In an era of results-driven accountability, teachers often lack the types of controls that allow them to harness both their own energy and that of their students. This research addressed a facet of teacher work life in which many feel disempowered: the regular infringement of outside intrusions into the classroom learning environment.

            Concerns about the use or misuse of class time continue to be expressed in the literature on school effectiveness and school improvement. For instance, Levin and Nolan (1996) note that the amount of time spent on instruction can vary widely from class to class and school to school, much of it as a direct consequence of system, teacher, and administrator policies. Ranallo (1997) contends that only a portion of allotted time becomes productive instructional time as much of it continues to be "absorbed by assemblies, special events, timetable adjustments, unexpected interruptions, discipline matters, etc."(p. 64). Similar concerns have been expressed by Seeman (1994, p. 115), who attributed much time wastage to "bad or loose school rules" as policies permit such time-consuming episodes as fund-raising, outside noises, and classroom intrusions.  

            A stratified random-selection of 1000 teachers in a western Canadian province were surveyed regarding their experiences and feelings about such time-consuming occurrences. The study was designed to provide supplementary data to an earlier investigation of the nature and frequency of externally-imposed classroom interruptions by attempting to ascertain their perceived impact (Leonard, 1999).

            The results dramatically illuminated the extent of the problem, as well as the array of teacher perceptions of and reactions to it.  The data clearly illustrated that externally-imposed classroom interruptions are a major concern for many teachers. Almost all the surveyed teachers indicated that they regularly experienced interferences from outside the physical parameters of the classroom. While there was wide variation in the reported impact these interruptions made on classes, more than half indicated that they considered them to constitute a serious problem. These teachers were often very ardent in their written expressions of the damaging effects of these intrusions, particularly in terms of how they distracted students and squandered instructional time.  It is also probable that such schools are failing to maximize learning opportunities for their students and, consequently, may be struggling to meet those prevailing demands for improved outcomes.

11:30 a.m. - 12:20 p.m.

Session 23.1   AT-RISK CHILDREN          Salon A                       

Chair: Cynthia J. Reed, Auburn University

Resurrecting the Research on Peer Tutoring

Gary W. Ritter, University of Arkansas

            Abundant evidence exists that urban schools and schools serving low-income students are facing staggering challenges.  One strategy embraced by many policymakers as a potential solution for these problems is volunteer tutoring for young students.  Leaders in the federal government, and at lower levels of government, have become increasingly interested in the concept of volunteer tutoring for elementary school children. 

            A review of the literature on the effectiveness of tutors for improving academic performance demonstrates the changing focus of the research over time and reveals interesting findings.  The bulk of the research on tutoring published in this nation in the 1970s and early 1980s examined the impacts of peer or cross-age tutoring.  Only in the mid-1980s did the research emphasis shift to specialized interventions for children with academic disadvantages; most recently, the research attention has moved toward volunteer programs in an effort to find cost-effective ways to expand the number of children served.  While there remains very little evidence regarding the impacts of volunteer tutoring for poor children, the bulk of the research on peer tutoring from the 1970s revealed that these programs were generally found effective at improving academic performance of both tutors and tutees. 

            Pupil-to-pupil tutoring increased in popularity during the 1970s, a period of teacher shortages, in which peer tutoring was viewed as a way to extend scarce teacher resources.  In 1982, Cohen, Kulik, and Kulik published a well-known and often-cited review on tutoring in the American Educational Research Journal.  The authors concluded that peer or cross-age tutoring programs have "definite and positive effects on the academic performance and attitudes of those who receive tutoring." 

            Because this may well be an effective strategy, this paper reviewed the literature on peer tutoring and presented recommendations for educators interesting in need of effective intervention programs.

Effect of an After‑School Tutorial Program on Academic Performance of Middle School Students At-Risk

Kathleen M. T. Collins, Saint Mary's University of Minnesota, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Howard University

            Observations of middle school students’ performance indicate a drop in grade point average and motivation, factors that place this population at risk for dropping out of school. To address these phenomena, some school districts provide after-school tutorial services to elevate academic performance and to act as a deterrent for developing at-risk behaviors that are associated with poor performance.

            The After-School Peer Tutoring (ASPT) Program, implemented at a rural southeastern school district, is one example of this effort. This program provides one-to-one tutorials in language arts, science, mathematics, and social studies that are conducted four nights per week. Tutors are college students who have completed a tutorial training session. However, little is known about this program’s efficacy. Thus, the present study explored the following questions:  (1) What are the at-risk characteristics of students participating in this program?  (2) To what degree does the ASPT program impact the performance of students experiencing academic difficulties? and (3) What are the characteristics of students who benefit the most from the program?

            The sample was comprised 89 of sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students enrolled in the ASPT program for one semester. End-of-semester grade was used as a measure of performance. Also analyzed were students' suspension history and referral/placement in special education, which served as indicators of at-risk behavior.

            Findings indicated that the program was very effective in increasing academic performance among its attendees because the majority of students attained a passing score in their targeted subject areas. However, although a notable percentage of students in the mathematics tutorial program attained passing scores (60.7%), this proportion was statistically significantly lower than that for language and social studies (Cohen’s d = .31 and .27, respectively). These findings suggested that the ASPT program was least successful for mathematics. Differences because of ethnicity, grade level, and suspension history emerged. Implications were discussed.

Effects of an Integrated Language Arts Tutoring Program on Reading Comprehension

Kathleen York, Charlotte Boling, Kavatus Newell, Wang Ying, and Dana G. Thames, The University of Southern Mississippi

            The effects of an integrated language arts, one-on-one tutoring program on reading comprehension scores were examined. A total of 93 students (treatment n = 51; comparison n = 42) in grades 4-8, who were reading below grade level, participated in the study for one school year.  Treatment group students received weekly, 90‑minute tutoring sessions designed to address individual needs identified by pre‑treatment diagnostic measures.

            Post-treatment comprehension scores obtained from the Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) for silent narrative, oral narrative, and silent expository reading for treatment and comparison groups were compared using the analysis of covariance.  For each of the three types of reading, post‑treatment comparisons for the two groups included Retells in Fact (RIF), Puts Information Together (PIT), Connects Author and Reader (CAR), Evaluates and Substantiates (EAS), and total comprehension scores from three levels: (1) one level below each student's present grade level, (2) at each student's present grade level, and (3) one level above each student's present grade level. Although a few statistically significant (p < .01) group differences were found for below-grade-level scores, several statistically significant (p < .01) differences were found for on-grade-level scores and for above-grade-level scores. All statistically significant differences favored students in the treatment group.  Effect sizes, as measured by the eta-squared coefficient, indicated that effects ranged from moderate to large in magnitude. Most of the statistically significant differences were found for silent expository and silent narrative reading, with fewer group differences found for oral narrative reading.

            The findings of the study strongly suggested that an integrated language arts, one-on-one tutoring program was an effective way to improve students' reading comprehension performance. Also, the study demonstrated that ARI diagnostic data obtained from individual students may be used both to inform instruction and to evaluate program and group performance.

Session 23.2   EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN          Salon B                    

Chair: Jane Nell Luster, Louisiana State University

Service Learning: Improving Attitudes of Regular or Gifted Education Students Towards Their Disabled Peers

Rona Skinner, Syracuse University; Mitylene Arnold, Texas A&M University; and Sidney Rowland, Grady Harlan, and Joan C. Harlan, The University of Mississippi

            Miller and Clarke (1991) proposed that interaction between non-disabled and disabled peers allows for an improved academic program for students with disabilities and increases their acceptance by their non-disabled peers.  According to Clark (1997) and Passow (1988), gifted students may benefit from interaction with students with disabilities.

            Service learning activities, a growing trend in the development of the gifted education curriculum, provide excellent opportunities for gifted students to foster relations with peers who are disabled.  Service learning activities allow gifted students to learn and to help others (Lewis, 1996).

            The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of service learning activities between students receiving special education services and gifted students on the attitudes of gifted students as measured by The Students’ Attitudes Toward the Mentally Handicapped Assessment (Campbell, 1988).  This 40-item survey was administered before and after a five-week intervention program of weekly, one-hour interactive sessions between the two groups of students in each of the schools.

            The sample of gifted students was white female nine- and ten-year-old fourth-grade students from a rural Mississippi Delta school district whose student body consists of 97.61% black and 2.24% white students, and from a more urban northern Mississippi school district whose student body consists of 33% black and 67% white students.  The sample of students receiving special education services was black male, fourth-grade students from the same two districts.

            Gifted students were more likely to indicate that students receiving special education services be mainstreamed into regular education classes, were more willing to associate with or to befriend those students, and they valued more the needs of those students’ privacy rights.  Additional analysis, discussion, and implications for curriculum modifications for both regular and gifted education students were presented in the final paper.

The Effects of Mnemonics Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: A Literature Review

Julie A. Holmes, Louisiana Tech University/Lincoln Parish (Louisiana) Schools

            Memory is the process of actively storing and receiving information. While memorization may take a lesser role in an overall curriculum that highlights higher order thinking skills, the importance of memorization could be forgotten. A common problem teachers face is being confronted by students who have difficulty remembering primary facts and concepts and are unable to proceed to higher-level skills. Higher-level objectives include, and are dependent on, lower level cognitive skills. If the ultimate goal is to produce students who are critical thinkers, the knowledge base must be developed through memorization.

            Mnemonic instruction is one way to build this foundation of knowledge. The purpose of this literature review is to report the effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students, especially those with learning disabilities. Sources included contemporary and classical literature from books, educational journals, and on-line sources. The literature supports the use of mnemonics for students with learning disabilities for many reasons, such as building foundational skills, revealing student potential and achievement, feelings of self-worth and motivation, and to learn to function as independent learners.

            The history of mnemonics is reported and various mnemonics strategies are explained and supported with examples from the literature encompassing all content areas. The results showed that mnemonic instruction is effective for average to poor associative learners and that the material learned was retained over time. Mixed results were discovered in terms of generalizing the technique to other content and in the use of teacher-constructed versus student-created mnemonics.

            Mnemonics works because they employ the principles of the information-processing model of intentional learning and act as a "semantic bridge" for students with learning disabilities. Yet, relatively few teachers are using this effective teaching technique. With the diversity of learners that enter today's classrooms, the power of mnemonic teaching strategies cannot be ignored.

The Use of Factor Scores of Inclusive Schooling Philosophies in the Prediction of Knowledge and Skills Among Elementary and Secondary Education Teachers

Kathleen R. Atkins, James C. Mainord, and David L. Naylor, University of Central Arkansas, and James E. Whorton, University of Southern Mississippi

            The practice of inclusion, providing a normalized education experience for all children with disabilities, remains a source of controversy among professionals.  Literature indicates a genuine commitment to inclusion requires the systems change approach in which all stakeholders act to create an environment that fosters equal and appropriate educational opportunities for all students.  Restructuring of schools based on the ideals of community, belonging, and acceptance is the foundation of inclusion. Eliminating the historical exclusive philosophy toward persons with disabilities poses several challenges to the educational system.  General educators working cooperatively with special educators to educate all students in a general education setting is cited as one of the most significant challenges facing effective inclusion.  This study sought to investigate the beliefs and attitudes toward inclusive schooling of elementary and secondary teachers that contribute to their existing knowledge and skills of inclusive practices.

            Elementary and secondary education teachers (n=220) from three school districts located in the central Arkansas region participated in the study by completing two inventories presented on a Likert-scale format.  The Inclusion Belief and Attitude Inventory consists of 20 items that solicited support and awareness responses regarding the inclusion of students with disabilities. The second inventory obtained information regarding the participants’ skills and knowledge of inclusion practices through 14 items.  The protocols were administered at professional development activities by the investigators of this study.

            The data collected on The Inclusion Belief and Attitude Inventory were analyzed by factor analysis in order to isolate the variables measuring beliefs/attitudes and the degree to which the variables would measure the construct.  A stepwise regression analysis was conducted to predict whether the factors representing beliefs and attitudes toward inclusion could predict the respondents knowledge and skills of inclusion. The findings of this study suggested implications for training teachers in inclusive schooling practices.

Session 23.3   LANGUAGE ARTS  Salon C

Chair: Carolyn Reeves-Kazelskis, The University of Southern Mississippi

The Fast ForWord Program in Jefferson County, Alabama

Karen Dahle, Gypsy A. Abbott, and Sheryl Strasser, The University of Alabama at Birmingham

            Language acquisition is affected by rates of speech.  According to the work of psychologist Paula Tallal, children lack strong basic fundamental language skills (speaking, listening, semantics, and syntax) as a result of rapid speech patterns encountered both in and outside of the classroom.  In response, Tallal developed the Fast ForWord program, a computer-based intervention that emphasizes slow articulation of words until comprehension and correct pronunciation are attained, while gradually guiding individuals up to typical speeds of speech.  This manuscript presented the evaluation of a pilot test of the Fast ForWord program in elementary schools of Jefferson County, Alabama.  Study subjects were children in grades K-5.  Data for the study were obtained from school records containing demographic information, as well as exam scores.  The TOLD exam served as the instrument to assess differences in students’ language abilities and was administered before and following program participation.  Scores were reported by five subtest measures that included: spoken language, listening, speaking, semantics, syntax, and a sixth, organization, for children in kindergarten through second grade. 

            Paired t-tests were run to compare differences among TOLD scores as they related to several independent variables including gender, age, grade level, special education status, and primary language.  Based on a p-value of .05 and an eta-square value of > .2, findings indicated that the program was effective overall by grade level and gender, with the exception of boys in kindergarten through second grade.  In addition, children in special education, grades three to five, also proved to be practically significant.  For educational purposes, all gains were interpreted to be positive. Overall study results tended to indicate that the Fast ForWord program has had a positive impact on participants from two Jefferson County schools and may be a promising prospect for today’s educational planners.

Teacher Responses to Sustained Silent Reading

Jennifer M. Good and Terry Ley, Auburn University

            An important objective of formal education is to promote and enhance the literacy skills of students. In response to this objective, numerous reading initiatives and literacy programs have been established at public schools throughout the United States. One such middle school program incorporated daily Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) time as a primary component of a literacy intervention, the integration of daily journal writing as a follow-up activity to the reading. Teachers were strongly encouraged to participate in a two-week literacy-training institute prior to the initiation of this program. Although research indicates that SSR has had positive effects on students’ attitudes toward reading at all grade levels, few studies have explored the teachers’ responses to SSR as a manageable and effective literacy intervention strategy.

            An essential component of SSR, agreed upon by researchers and administrators, is the use of the teacher as a role model of good reading habits. Advocates of SSR programs state that everyone, including the teacher, must be engaged in reading (Manning-Dowd, 1985). Wiscount (1990) noted that the positive results of SSR programs varied, noting that the actual commitment of the teacher to model recreational reading impacted the responses of students to SSR programs. If teachers are an essential link in the effectiveness of an SSR program, then it seems logical to solicit their attitudes toward the SSR program in order to foster program improvement and development.

            Teachers (n = 23) involved in this particular program completed a survey at the end of the 1999-2000 academic year after one year of the literacy intervention that included sustained silent reading and journal response writing. The survey consisted of two parts: 33-multiple choice items that asked respondents to indicate the extent of their agreement on a five-point scale, and 13 open-ended responses to different prompts. Because of sufficient reliabilities, the 33 items were collapsed and analyzed as six constructs of program worth, training effectiveness, teacher efficacy in reading, reading importance, views on journal writing, and use of the reading specialist as a resource. The open-ended responses were analyzed through a content analysis.

            The responses to the survey indicated that the teachers perceived the reading program to be a beneficial and worthwhile experience for their students. Specifically, the sustained silent reading time was received favorably. However, the journal writing component of the program met with mixed reactions. Most members of the faculty and staff would like to see it continued, but suggestions for revisions to managing the journal writing time and making it instructionally meaningful would be welcomed. For instance, teachers indicated that they would like to participate in staff development on a variety of topics related to reading instruction, particularly as it relates to specific content area. These conclusions implied that teachers are an essential link in the effectiveness of literacy intervention. Their suggestions for improvement can help to inform the direction of literacy instruction, and thus, should be carefully considered during program evaluation.

Effects of Reading Renaissance Training: Faculty Reactions to Compressed Inservice

David M. Holman and Arthur McLin, Arkansas State University

            Professional staff development activities are often short-term, devoid of adequate follow-up, and do not address school contexts. Literature on professional development reports that effective integration of technology into education calls for vision of professional development, whereby ongoing programs are tied to a school’s curricular goals and sustained by staff support.

            Accelerated Reader and STAR Reading are Reading Renaissance reading management systems that use computers to manage day-to-day student reading practice. Inservice in these programs typically covers two years, one day of faculty training during the first year of implementation with two days of follow-up training the second year. As part of a larger project, this study explored the effect of compressing the inservice into one year.  One day of training in the fall, and two days of training in the spring for grades two through four faculty from four elementary schools in one moderate size school district in Arkansas, were provided. All participating faculty in each school were interviewed within two months of the first inservice and within two months of the second inservice.

            Interviews were analyzed holistically with pattern analysis to determine themes related to faculty comfort with the technology and amount and appropriateness of implementation. Conclusions were drawn related to the impact of compressing inservice on faculty comfort and the unexpected contamination of competing district/building reading programs. Findings have implications for district planning of staff development activities and program implementation.

Session 23.4   COLLEGE STUDENTS        Salon D                      

Chair: Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Conversations with Metropolitan University Freshmen

Kathy K. Franklin, Vonna R. Cranston, Susan N. Perry, Damaris K. Purtle and Blake E. Robertson, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore freshmen attitudes about higher education.  The significance of the study was in designing a theoretical framework to inform effective retention strategies targeted toward metropolitan university students.  The sampling frame included students enrolled in freshman-year experience (FYE) orientation courses taught at a metropolitan university. 

            During the fall of 1999, eight researchers conducted 28 interviews with freshmen.  The researchers contacted the instructors of five FYE courses requesting permission to use class time to interview students.  Instructors planned group activities for the day of the interviews.  Over a six-day period, the researchers visited the FYE courses selecting students to interview based on two sampling criteria: (1) students with freshman status and (2) a purposive sample based on gender, age, and ethnicity.  Instructors allowed each student volunteer to leave the classroom for approximately 20-minutes for the interview.  The interviews followed a script written a priori based on extant literature.

            Congruent with Husserlian phenomenological reduction, each researcher bracketed her/his transcripts into coding categories.  Next, a research team merged approximately 200 codes into 50 themes possessing shared thoughts.  A second team grouped the themes into six attitude patterns.  Finally, the researchers used the patterns as the constructs to form a theoretical framework.  The researchers conducted an internal-peer audit to ensure the validity of the data heard to the theoretical framework.

            The resulting theoretical framework included freshman attitudes about academics, educational purpose, first-year emotions, preparedness and support, the role of money, and university life.  Recommendations were made for developing strategies to improve retention for metropolitan students based on the theoretical framework.

Marilyn Norwood and Jim Vander Putten, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

            The American public perceives college students today (Generation X) as apathetic, if not lazy and consumer conscious.  This negative opinion of the United States public regarding higher education affects teaching as well as institutional and student outcomes.

            The study purported to understand if generation Xers were acting simply on the basis of immaturity and how this related to teaching them on the college level.  In the past 25 years, in loco parentis has almost disappeared as an approach in institutional control of students.  The research attempted to understand if the problem was the same across socioeconomic, race, and gender lines.

            A review of some of the thinking of authors on the higher education hierarchy, as well as student responsibility from a historical and sociological perspective, including the dynamics of today’s college environment, was presented in the study.  In this review, the previous writings of Derrida, Foucault, Lyotard, and Baudrillard helped to focus on higher education in this postmodern period of Generation X.  Also, the study indicated that within the last decade the writings of Tinto, Pascarella, Astin, and Pace have reflected a concern for student accountability in terms of the higher education experience.

            The basis of this study was Gen Xers from a Research I institution in the south-central United States.  The eight participants in the study include four males and four females from two ethnic groups who were full-time undergraduate students between the ages of 18-28 years.  These students discussed in interview style their religious values, as well as how they perceived college life, their parents, and their future.

            The results of the study indicated that concern for Gen Xers was justified and that they needed not only demographic diversity, but diversity in learning styles as well.  It confirmed much of Peter Sacks writings about the Generation X college cohort.

Protocol and Scale Development to Assess the Adult Learner

James E. Witte, Tony Guarino, and Maria Martinez Witte, Auburn University

            This study described the development and validation of an interview protocol and a performance-rating scale designed to assess individual performance in the adult learner social role. The genesis for this work was found in the 1950s social roles’ research of Robert J. Havighurst and the later research of Abney (1992/1993) and Kirkman (1994).  The scale and interview protocol were developed using five specifically structured review panels.  The first two panels were involved in the construction of the scales and protocol.  The third panel, using a Q-sort technique, reviewed the relationship of the proposed protocol questions and the performance-rating scale.  The fifth and final panel qualitatively reviewed both the scale and protocol for overall clarity, functionality, and usability.  Following field testing, data were examined using confirmatory factor analysis to assess content validity.  The major finding of this study was that the scale and protocol served the purpose for which they were designed.

This interactive symposium is designed to provide a forum for participants and is open to MSERA members who pre-registered for the session.